Reduction and Elimination in Philosophy and the Sciences

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Literatur Glock, Hans Johann 2006 „Truth in the Tractatus“, Synthese 148, 345–368. Hacker, P.M.S. 1981 „The Rise and Fall of the Picture Theory”, in: Irving Block (Hg.), Perspectives on the Philosophy of Wittgenstein, Oxford: Blackwell, S. 85–109. Hintikka, Jaakko 1994 „An Anatomy of Wittgenstein’s Picture Theory“, in Carol C. Gould and Robert S. Cohen (Hrsg.), Artifacts, Representations and Social Practice, Dordrecht: Kluwer, S. 223– 256. Orth, Bernhard 1974 Einführung in die Theorie des Messens, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Abbildung und lebendes Bild in Tractatus und Nachlass — Christian Erbacher Suppes, Patrick 1988, „Representation theory and the analysis of structure“, Philosophia Naturalis 25, S. 254–268. Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1963 Tractatus logico-Philosophicus, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1989 Ludwig Wittgenstein und der Wiener Kreis: Gespräche, aufgezeichnet von Friedrich Waismann, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Wittgenstein, Ludwig 2001 Tractatus logico-Philosophicus, Kritische Edition, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Wittgenstein, Ludwig 2000 Wittgenstein’’s Nachlass: The Bergen Electronic Edition, Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen (Hrsg.), Oxford: Oxford University Press. 85
Explaining the Brain: Ruthless Reductionism or Multilevel Mechanisms? Markus Eronen, Osnabrück, Germany 1. Introduction In this paper, I will compare and criticize two approaches to reduction and explanation in neuroscience: metascientific reductionism and mechanistic explanation. I will first show that the traditional models of intertheoretic reduction are unsuitable for neuroscience. Then I will compare John Bickle’s model of metascientific reductionism and Carl Craver’s model of mechanistic explanation, arguing that the latter has a stronger case, especially when supplemented with James Woodward’s interventionist account of causal explanation. 2. Intertheoretic reduction The development of intertheoretic models of reduction started in the middle of the 20 th century, in the spirit of logical positivism. The ultimate goal was to show how unity of science could be attained through reductions. In the classic model (most importantly Nagel 1961, 336-397), reduction consists in the deduction of a theory to be reduced (T2) from a more fundamental theory (T1). Conditions for a successful reduction are that (1) we can connect the terms of T2 with the terms T1, and that (2) with the help of these connecting assumptions we can derive all the laws of T2 from T1. Unfortunately this model fails to account for many cases that are regarded as reductions. The model is too demanding: it is very hard to find a pair of theories that would meet these requirements. Even Nagel’s prime example, the reduction of thermodynamics to statistical mechanics, is much more complicated than Nagel thought (see, e.g., Richardson 2007). The classic model also has problems accommodating the fact that the reducing theory often corrects the theory to be reduced, which means that the theory to be reduced is strictly speaking false. However, logical deduction is truth-preserving, so it should not be possible to deduce a false theory from a true one. Problems of this kind lead to the development of more and more sophisticated models of intertheoretic reduction, and finally to the “New Wave reductionism” of P. S. Churchland (1986), P. M. Churchland (1989) and J. Bickle (1998, 2003, 2006). Due to constraints of space, I will not go through these models here. It is sufficient to point out one fundamental assumption that underlies all intertheoretic models of reduction, and which leads to serious problems in the case of psychology and neuroscience. This assumption is that the relata of reductions are exclusively theories, and that intertheoretic relations are the only epistemically and ontologically significant interscientific relations (see, e.g., McCauley 2007). However, well-structured theories that could be handled with logical tools are rare in and peripheral to psychology and neuroscience. Instead, scientists typically look for mechanisms as explanations for patterns, effects, capacities, phenomena, and so on (see, e.g., Machamer et al. 2000 and Cummins 2000). Although there are theories in a loose sense in psychology and neuroscience, like the LTP theory for spatial memory or the global workspace theory, these are not theories that could be formalized, 86 and can hardly be the starting points or results of logical deductions. Therefore looking at the relations between theories is the wrong starting point, at least in the case of psychology and neuroscience. 3. Metascientific reductionism At least partly for these reasons, John Bickle, the most ardent advocate of New Wave reductionism, has taken some distance from the intertheoretic models of reduction and now emphasizes looking at the “reduction-in-practice” in current neuroscience (Bickle 2003, 2006). He calls this approach “metascientific reductionism” to distinguish it from philosophically motivated models of reduction that are typically used in philosophy of mind. The idea is that instead of imposing philosophical intuitions on what reduction has to be, we should examine scientific case studies to understand reduction. We should look at experimental practices of an admittedly reductionistic field, characterized as such by its practitioners and other scientists. According to Bickle, molecular and cellular cognition – the study of the molecular and cellular basis of cognitive function – provides just the right example. The reductionist methodology of molecular and cellular cognition has two parts: (1) intervene causally into cellular or molecular pathways, (2) track statistically significant differences in the behavior of the animals (2006, 425). When this strategy is successful and a mind-to-molecules linkage has been forged, a reduction has been established. The cellular and molecular mechanisms directly explain the behavioural data and set aside intervening explanatory levels (2006, 426). Higher-level psychology is needed for describing behavior, formulating hypotheses, designing experimental setups, and so on, but according to Bickle, these are just heuristic tasks, and when cellular/molecular explanations are completed, there is nothing left for higherlevel investigations to explain (2006, 428). Metascientific reductionism does not require that the relata of reductions are formal theories, and does not lead to the problem mentioned in the end of last section. However, it is not without its share of problems, as I will show below. 4. Mechanistic explanation The discrepancies between traditional models of reduction and actual scientific practice in psychology, neuroscience and biology have resulted in the development of alternative models. One alternative that I have just discussed is Bickle’s metascientific reductionism. Another approach that has been receiving more and more attention recently is mechanistic explanation (e.g., Bechtel & Richardson 1993, Machamer et al. 2000). In this paper I will focus on Carl Craver’s (2007) recent and detailed account of mechanistic explanation. The central claim of advocates of mechanistic explanation is that good explanations describe mechanisms
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31 Alexander Hieke Hannes Leitgeb H
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Reduktion und Elimination in Philos
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Distributors Die Österreichische L
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6 Inhalt / Contents Wittgenstein me
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8 Inhalt / Contents The Evolution o
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Formal Mechanisms for Reduction in
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4. Property language and theoretica
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imperatives, or commands in the for
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Referential Practice and the Lure o
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The Augustinian account confuses mo
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hurried to fix it on the page. The
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The Essence (?) of Color, According
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Literature Austin, James 1980 “Wi
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Wittgenstein’s Externalism - Gett
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Informal Reduction E.P. Brandon, Ca
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
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An Anti-Reductionist Argument Based
Page 36 and 37: Did I Do It? -Yeah, You Did! Wittge
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Page 40 and 41: tween the two approaches. The task
Page 42 and 43: On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
Page 44 and 45: On Two Recent Defenses of The Simpl
Page 46 and 47: Queen Victoria’s Dying Thoughts T
Page 48 and 49: Diagonalization. The Liar Paradox,
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Page 60 and 61: objects. But they also leave unansw
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Page 92 and 93: Literature Campbell, Donald T. 1987
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Page 126 and 127: Reduction Revisited: The Ontologica
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Page 134 and 135: Literature Cartwright, Nancy 1999:
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Wittgensteins Projektionsmethode al
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Schlussbemerkungen Wittgensteins Pr
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intentional states requires functio
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Relating Theories. Models and Struc
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Literature Relating Theories. Model
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e invoked in response to the questi
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Do Brains Think? Christopher Humphr
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4. Conclusion So do brains think or
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How Metaphors Alter the World-Pictu
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The Modal Supervenience of the Conc
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Literature van der Auwera, Johan an
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3. The Determination of Form by Syn
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Zwischen Humes Gesetz und „Sollen
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Assessing Humean Supervenience Amir
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determination thesis; it fails as a
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Aus der obigen Definition folgt, da
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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Ding-Ontology of Aristotle vs. Sach
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How do Moral Principles Figure in M
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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“Downward Causation”: Emergent,
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A with distinguished subset Z of te
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A Metaphysically Moderate Version o
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Literature Balashov, Yuri 2002 ''Wh
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“In der Frage liegt ein Fehler”
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Problems with Psychophysical Identi
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identity theory, or as a predecesso
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of the world. It only matters that
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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Four Anti-reductionist Dogmas in th
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notion of time and requires that so
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Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
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Some Remarks on Wittgenstein and Ty
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concrete particulars can be subject
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phenomenal concept of experiencing
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Metaphorische Bedeutung als virtus
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speaker is then attaching a special
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„Vom Weißdorn und vom Propheten
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„Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
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„Die Einheit hören“ - Einige
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S4) the necessity of arithmetic is
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Getting out from Inside: Why the Cl
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Dispensing with Particulars: Unders
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Literature Dispensing with Particul
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Reichenbach’s Concept of Logical
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Defining Ontological Naturalism Mar
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Literature Jackson, Frank 1986. “
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properties are located. This proces
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‘our conceptual scheme’ “is c
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Properties and Reduction between Me
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Does this mean that metaphysics sho
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do not pick out pain in a system by
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The Writing of Nietzsche and Wittge
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his teachings. He coincides with hi
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sense of a proposition without firs
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Naturalistic Ethics: A Logical Posi
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Literature Kant, Immanuel 2006 Crit
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What we now require is a bridge the
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Species, Variability, and Integrati
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could mention the many sorts of iso
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to work this way. Classic examples
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The Key Problems of KC Matteo Pleba
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have embraced the myth of prose: it
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5. Prior’s Problem As Patrick Bla
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Reductionism in Axiology: the Case
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developing of cancer tissue in huma
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(2) One-way Nagelian bridge princip
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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Rethinking the Modal Argument again
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that we are to find the features we
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Atypical Rational Agency Paul Raymo
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Literature Anscombe, G. E. M. 1957
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situation bieten sich keine Kriteri
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Two Reductions of ‘rule’ Dana R
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one that could take place, but does
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physics is not able to make, since
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Wittgenstein’s Attitudes Fabien S
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view of logic, in accordance with h
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Warum man auf transzendentalphiloso
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Making the Mind Higher-Level Elizab
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Literature Churchland, P. M. (1995)
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Mental Causation: A Lesson from Act
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Again, this is mistaken. Non-reduct
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auf alle Arten von kontingenten Pro
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Reduction, Sets, and Properties Ben
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Literature Egan, Andy (2004): ‘Se
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there is a tension between evaluati
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The Elimination of Meaning in Compu
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sufficient to explain all of the em
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that 'A' and 'A' could never be tok
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the necktie sense) can differ in wh
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Supervenience and ‘Should’ Arto
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word 'norm' can be thought to expre
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Rule-following as Coordination: A G
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vast majority are bent: gruesome, g
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human life, the violent condition o
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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A Division in Mind. The Misconceive
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could then deduce (1c) and conclude
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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Neutral Monism. A Miraculous, Incoh
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A somewhat Eliminativist Proposal a
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Impliziert der intentionale Redukti
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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Structure of the Paradoxes, Structu
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that he was working on a translatio
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Objects of Perception, Objects of S
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Let us take the example of the hypo
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Reducing Sets to Modalities Rafał
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variables ai that (under an interpr
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Are Lamarckian Explanations Fully R
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A Note on Tractatus 5.521 Nuno Vent
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And he goes on saying, referring to
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The Place of Theory Reduction in th
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Ethik als irreduzibles Supervenienz
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unabhängig von denen ihrer Mitglie
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Das ‘schwierige Problem’ des Be
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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The Supervenience Argument, Levels,
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their relations both to the physica
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On the Characterization of Objects
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On the Characterization of Objects
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The Functional Unity of Special Sci
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size, location, temporal characteri
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Transcendental Philosophy and Mind-
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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From Topology to Logic. The Neural
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The Calculus of Inductive Construct
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The Four-Color Theorem, Testimony a
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experience. Of course, a detailed a
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Clearly x = y → x = ext y holds,
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Intentional Fundamentalism Petri Yl
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The second dimension to be consider
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The very existence of the special s
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Heil, J. (1999), “Multiple Realiz
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independent of what is the fact, fa
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415
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Publications of the Austrian Ludwig
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