International Trade in Services.pdf - DSpace at Khazar University

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182 International Trade in Services the client country (the construction of oil platforms is a notable exception). This helps allay concerns about labor adjustments that sometimes are associated with trade liberalization linked to foreign direct investment. However, the inflow of foreign guest workers remains a sensitive issue in most countries. The two common modes of supply—commercial presence and the movement of natural persons—are complementary in construction services, but the strength of the link may vary depending on the entry strategy of the exporter. Over the last few decades, companies have moved increasingly toward a more permanent presence in new markets relative to the alternative of a project-specific or mobile presence. Chen (2008) finds that contractors are more likely to use a permanent entry mode than a project-specific entry mode if cultural distance or competitive intensity is significant or if colonial ties, language proximity, or entry restrictions are insignificant. Companies with permanent presence are less dependent on the circulation of project staff from abroad. Because substantial entry restrictions in client countries tend to push international contractors to depend on shorter-term establishments, they also lead companies to make use of more foreign staff than necessary. Several developing countries are major importers and exporters of construction services The leading exporters of construction services in absolute terms are large developed countries, such as Japan, the United States, and member countries of the European Union, followed by large emerging economies such as China, India, the Russian Federation, and Turkey (table 6.1). Egyptian, Israeli, Malaysian, and Thai construction companies also have significant presence abroad. For example, Egypt exported construction services worth more than US$0.5 billion in 2005. While developed affluent countries are the biggest exporters in absolute terms, exports of construction services are more significant as a share of the national economy in some developing countries. Among the top importers, the largest Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) economies are comparable with hydrocarbon exporters such as Angola, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Russia. Several countries around the Persian Gulf would also feature prominently on the list if their trade data were made available. The data on trade in construction services are limited and fragmented because the annual flows of only a few countries are recorded in the International Monetary Fund balance of payments statistics. Figure 6.3 presents export data for the non- OECD countries that report data on a regular basis. There is a clear upward trend that indicates the growing participation of developing countries in this trade. All the countries recorded an increase in construction exports between 2002 and 2007, with
Table 6.1. Major Exporters and Importers of Construction Services, 2005 Value Value (US$ Share in 15 Annual % (US$ Share in 15 Annual % Rank Exporters millions) economies (%) change Rank Importers millions) economies (%) change 1 European Union (25) 26,142 55.3 13 1 European Union (25) 18,743 48.3 6 Extra–European Union Extra–European Union (25) exports 14,171 30.0 17 (25) imports 7,957 20.5 6 2 Japan 7,224 15.3 5 2 Japan 4,765 12.3 1 3 United States 4,139 8.8 15 3 Russian Federation 4,034 10.4 32 4 China 2,593 5.5 77 4 Kazakhstan 1,941 5.0 165 5 Russian Federation 2,209 4.7 40 5 China 1,619 4.2 21 6 Turkey 882 1.9 19 6 Azerbaijan 1,499 3.9 9 7 India (estimated) 828 1.8 — 7 Angola 1,323 3.4 53 8 Malaysia 811 1.7 148 8 Malaysia 1,087 2.8 133 9 Singapore 566 1.2 1 9 United States 1,039 2.7 7 10 Egypt, Arab Rep. 503 1.1 24 10 India (estimated) 774 2.0 — 11 Israel 349 0.7 7 11 Indonesia 726 1.9 2 12 Hong Kong, China 313 0.7 17 12 Taiwan, China 376 1.0 33 13 Thailand 255 0.5 8 13 Thailand 314 0.8 37 14 Norway 254 0.5 119 14 Hong Kong, China 273 0.7 21 15 Romania 195 0.4 63 15 Singapore 271 0.7 1 Above 15 47,265 100.0 — Above 15 38,785 100.0 — 183 Source: WTO (2008). Note: European Union (25) member states of the European Union before January 2007: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. — not available.
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Public Disclosure Authorized Public
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International Trade in Services New
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CONTENTS About the Editors and Cont
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Contents vii Boxes 2.1 Extent of Te
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Contents ix 1.4 Worker Remittances
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Contents xi 6.6 A Checklist of Ques
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xiv About the Editors and Contribut
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xvi Foreword Beyond describing the
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xviii Acknowledgments Finally, this
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1 Assessing the Potential of Servic
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Assessing the Potential of Services
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2 Increasing Labor Mobility: Option
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Increasing Labor Mobility 31 unders
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Table 2.2. Quantitative Estimates o
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Borjas, George “Heaven’s Doors:
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Increasing Labor Mobility 37 contri
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Increasing Labor Mobility 39 must h
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Worker categories covered Specifica
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Provisions on professionals Annex o
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Increasing Labor Mobility 45 The EU
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Table 2.7. Agreements between Austr
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Specified quotas n.a. Entry subject
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Increasing Labor Mobility 55 Figure
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Increasing Labor Mobility 57 Bilate
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Increasing Labor Mobility 59 Jamaic
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Increasing Labor Mobility 61 factor
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Increasing Labor Mobility 63 indivi
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Increasing Labor Mobility 65 that a
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3 Legal Services: Does More Trade R
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Legal Services: Does More Trade Rhy
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Table 3.3. Trade in Legal Services:
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Table 3.8. Uruguay Round Commitment
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100 International Trade in Services
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Exporting Information Technology Se
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Brunei Darussalam 48.2 2.9 2,954 66
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Honduras 6.0 — 4,081 10.1 3.3 —
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Norway 85.0 30.6 31,726 82.0 78.0 5
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Uganda 3.6 — 306 5.1 — 170.0 41
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8 Accounting Services: Ensuring Goo
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Accounting Services 265 exceeding 5
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Accounting Services 267 Links to la
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Accounting Services 269 The account
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Accounting Services 271 Box 8.3: Ex
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Accounting Services 273 service mar
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Accounting Services 275 Table 8.5.
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Accounting Services 277 Box 8.6: Re
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Accounting Services 279 Box 8.7: An
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Accounting Services 281 Table 8.6.
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Accounting Services 283 Restriction
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Accounting Services 285 Commercial
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Accounting Services 287 Colleges of
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Accounting Services 289 Administrat
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Accounting Services 291 IESBA (Inte
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350 Index Association of Certified
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352 Index Convention on Combating B
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354 Index Former Yugoslav Republic
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356 Index International Public Sect
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358 Index migrants. See labor mobil
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360 Index public-private partnershi
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362 Index Thailand construction ser
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ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits St
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