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294 International Trade in Services Box 9.1: Definition of Engineering Services The United Nations Provisional Central Product Classification list covers two relevant items on the four-digit level for engineering services (UN 1991): Engineering services (CPC 8672): covering (1) advisory and consultative engineering services, (2) engineering design services for the construction of foundations and building structures, (3) engineering design services for mechanical and electrical installations for buildings, (4) engineering design services for the construction of civil engineering works, (5) engineering design services for industrial processes and production, (6) engineering design services not elsewhere classified, (7) other engineering services during the construction and installation phase, and (8) other engineering services. Integrated engineering services (CPC 8673): covering (1) integrated engineering services for turnkey transportation infrastructure projects, (2) integrated engineering and project management services for turnkey water supply and sanitation works projects, (3) integrated engineering services for the construction of turnkey manufacturing projects, and (4) integrated engineering services for other turnkey projects. • Electrical engineering is fundamental to the operation of public works, such as utilities, as well as commercial facilities and communication systems. • Petroleum engineering is a primary input in some of the most productive sectors in oil-producing developing countries. These sectors account for up to 98 percent of exports in some developing countries (Sawinski and Mason 2007). • Industrial engineering focuses on methods of production and efficiency and contributes to the overall productivity in the agriculture, manufacturing, and service sectors. Consequently, for their welfare, citizens in developing countries have a significant interest in ensuring access to cost-competitive and high-quality engineering services. Trade openness abroad is necessary so that engineering companies in developing countries may access foreign markets. Developing-country exports of engineering services are currently on the rise because new channels of electronic supply are creating new business opportunities and because the international sourcing of engineering services is becoming increasingly common. Several developing countries are large exporters of complementary services, such as construction services, and the provision of engineering services often represents a natural expansion for these companies in moving up the value chain. Engineering service exports may therefore provide many high-paying jobs to technicians and engineers in those developing countries that offer decent training opportunities. In sum, trade liberalization in the engineering sector is in the interest of developing countries both at home and abroad. The next section addresses the issue of what can be done to harness trade opportunities by pursuing reforms in home
Engineering Services: How to Compete in the Most Global of the Professions 295 markets, improving access to finance, promoting quality education and training in engineering, adopting an offensive (rather than defensive) trade strategy, and using trade negotiations to advance the interest in engineering exports. Then the role of engineers and professional bodies are considered, with special attention to designing business strategies to reinforce competitiveness, strengthening professional standards, meeting international standards, and promoting professional qualifications. The final section concludes by setting out the questions that stakeholders should bear in mind as they advance reforms. Tables are presented that identify initiatives to build trade capacity in engineering services by recognizing the dynamics in the marketplace and the common restrictions that affect the trade in engineering services. What Is the Situation of and What Are the Prospects for Trade in Engineering Services Global spending on engineering services constitutes roughly 2 percent of world income, and companies in developed countries are moving an increasing share of the supply of these knowledge-intensive services to developing countries. While labor costs remain an important motivation for this trade, access to local skills and markets is often driving the decisions by multinationals. It is estimated that the sector will grow by 2.4 percent on average until 2020 and create millions of high-income jobs in developing countries, many of which will be linked to exports. Of the industry’s estimated US$1 trillion turnover in 2020, some 14–20 percent may be provided by emerging markets. This implies that the international supply by companies based in developing countries would double roughly every four years until 2020 (Booz Allen Hamilton 2006). National trade statistics on engineering services are limited at best. Table 9.1 presents data on trade in architectural, engineering, and other technical services in 2006 for a number of markets. This broad category includes some services that are not covered in common definitions of engineering services, and our numbers here should therefore be interpreted with caution. The data reveal that emerging markets such as those of Brazil, India, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and Singapore are large exporters and that these countries, plus Kazakhstan, are also major importers. China would have been included among the top traders if data were available, and so would several Persian Gulf countries. Rapid economic growth in countries such as China and India and in regions such as the Gulf and, until recently, Eastern Europe has led to greater demand for infrastructure. Aging infrastructure in developed economies also generates much demand for engineering services (Holloway 2007). The construction boom in the Middle East, particularly in resource-rich countries, has attracted plenty of
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Public Disclosure Authorized Public
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International Trade in Services New
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CONTENTS About the Editors and Cont
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Contents vii Boxes 2.1 Extent of Te
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Contents ix 1.4 Worker Remittances
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Contents xi 6.6 A Checklist of Ques
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xiv About the Editors and Contribut
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xvi Foreword Beyond describing the
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xviii Acknowledgments Finally, this
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1 Assessing the Potential of Servic
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Assessing the Potential of Services
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2 Increasing Labor Mobility: Option
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Increasing Labor Mobility 31 unders
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Table 2.2. Quantitative Estimates o
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Borjas, George “Heaven’s Doors:
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Increasing Labor Mobility 37 contri
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Increasing Labor Mobility 39 must h
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Worker categories covered Specifica
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Provisions on professionals Annex o
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Increasing Labor Mobility 45 The EU
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Table 2.7. Agreements between Austr
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Specified quotas n.a. Entry subject
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Increasing Labor Mobility 55 Figure
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Increasing Labor Mobility 57 Bilate
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Increasing Labor Mobility 59 Jamaic
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Increasing Labor Mobility 61 factor
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Increasing Labor Mobility 63 indivi
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Increasing Labor Mobility 65 that a
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3 Legal Services: Does More Trade R
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Legal Services: Does More Trade Rhy
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Table 3.3. Trade in Legal Services:
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Table 3.8. Uruguay Round Commitment
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100 International Trade in Services
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7 Exporting Information Technology
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Exporting Information Technology Se
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Table 7.1. Major Exporters and Impo
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Page 277 and 278: Honduras 6.0 — 4,081 10.1 3.3 —
Page 279 and 280: Norway 85.0 30.6 31,726 82.0 78.0 5
Page 281 and 282: Uganda 3.6 — 306 5.1 — 170.0 41
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Page 289 and 290: Accounting Services 267 Links to la
Page 291 and 292: Accounting Services 269 The account
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Page 305 and 306: Accounting Services 283 Restriction
Page 307 and 308: Accounting Services 285 Commercial
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Page 313: Accounting Services 291 IESBA (Inte
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350 Index Association of Certified
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352 Index Convention on Combating B
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354 Index Former Yugoslav Republic
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356 Index International Public Sect
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358 Index migrants. See labor mobil
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360 Index public-private partnershi
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362 Index Thailand construction ser
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ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits St
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