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214 International Trade in Services standards. The supply of construction services is local in nature, and commercial presence is consequently the most common mode of service delivery. The local production requirement helps allay the fears of prospective labor adjustments and favors increased openness to foreign direct investment. However, the other common mode of supply is the temporary movement of natural persons, which represents an advantage for some developing countries because of their relative abundance in labor. There are many millions of foreign construction workers imported to building sites, for example, within the OECD, the Persian Gulf region, and Russia. Openness to foreign guest workers has historically been politically sensitive despite the fact that the prospective benefits are significant. The trade in construction services is growing in importance, and developing countries feature high on the list of major importers and exporters of these services. Firm-level data reveal that Chinese, Egyptian, Indian, Russian, Turkish, and Southeast Asian companies are some of the larger exporters. The sector is highly regulated in many countries, but most regulations are applied on a nondiscriminatory basis and are designed to uphold the safety of human life, protect the environment, and provide quality assurance and the orderly expansion of developed areas. The important question from a trade perspective is whether the rules and regulations are more trade restrictive than necessary to achieve the objectives. For example, the heterogeneity of standards, processes, and procedures that companies face in different export markets may not be discriminatory, but do give rise to increased transaction costs that may impede market entry. There is ample evidence that certain types of regulations are imposed mainly to prevent international contractors from providing competition in domestic markets. Policy makers in developing countries may have significant scope to facilitate trade in construction services. Effective competition would generate gains among consumers and suppliers. This chapter identifies three main areas where policy makers could focus their attention in helping the domestic construction sector raise standards and thereby facilitate the sector’s integration in international markets, as follows: 1. Policy makers could review domestic regulations and the implementation of these regulations to highlight reform needs. The administration of construction permits and the management of government procurement are two areas in which improved governance could greatly stimulate the sector and attract foreign investment. Effective measures to tackle the corruption that is common in construction and public works are of paramount importance not only in nurturing a healthy domestic construction sector, but also in attracting new, productive companies to enter the market. 2. Policy makers could aim to enhance the competitiveness of the domestic construction sector through the implementation, if feasible, of international or
Building Empires Overseas 215 regional standards in construction materials and good practices in building codes. This would lower transaction costs and facilitate imports and exports of construction services. Addressing human resource shortages and introducing incentives for cooperation and technology transfers between foreign and domestic contractors would strengthen the domestic sector. 3. Policy makers could seek to facilitate greater access to the domestic construction market by foreign construction companies and workers. This would stimulate competition and, by extension, save government resources and help improve access to key services by the poorest citizens. Policy makers could also seek improved market access for the domestic construction companies and workers of major trading partners. Facilitating the transfer of guest workers from developing countries would, in particular, help increase exports from poor countries with abundant endowments of unskilled and semiskilled labor. A review of these various options, taking into consideration domestic conditions, would allow policy makers in developed and developing countries to harness trade opportunities and improve the workings of the domestic construction service sector. Notes 1. Based in a small and geographically isolated country, New Zealand’s export-oriented construction service sector has, for example, specialized in the design of earthquake-resistant structures and the construction of dairy and meat facilities. 2. See http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm10_e.htm#govt. 3. In addition, advanced developing countries could contemplate signing the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions so as to increase pressure and create momentum to tackle graft in the industry. 4. See http://www.devbusiness.com/. 5. See building construction (TC 59) and building construction machinery and equipment (TC 195), respectively, at http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_tc_browse.htm commid=49070&development=on and http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_ tc_browse.htmcommid=54540&development=on. References Baldwin-Edwards, Martin. 2005. “Migration in the Middle East and Mediterranean.” Regional study, January, Mediterranean Migration Observatory, University Research Institute for Urban Environment and Human Resources, Panteion University, Athens. Chen, Chuan. 2008. “Entry Mode Selection for International Construction Markets: The Influence of Host Country Related Factors.” Construction Management and Economics 26 (3): 303–14. CLR News. 2006. “Japan: What Can We Learn.” CLR News 2/2006, CLR News, Brussels. Corkin, Lucy, and Christopher Burke. 2006. China’s Interest and Activity in Africa’s Construction and Infrastructure Sectors. Stellenbosch, South Africa: Centre for Chinese Studies, Stellenbosch University. de Boer, Kito, and Jaap B. Kalkman. 2007. “Meeting Bahrain’s Challenges: An Interview with Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad Al-Khalifa.” McKinsey Quarterly, January.
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Public Disclosure Authorized Public
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International Trade in Services New
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CONTENTS About the Editors and Cont
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Contents vii Boxes 2.1 Extent of Te
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Contents ix 1.4 Worker Remittances
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Contents xi 6.6 A Checklist of Ques
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xiv About the Editors and Contribut
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xvi Foreword Beyond describing the
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xviii Acknowledgments Finally, this
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1 Assessing the Potential of Servic
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Assessing the Potential of Services
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2 Increasing Labor Mobility: Option
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Increasing Labor Mobility 31 unders
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Table 2.2. Quantitative Estimates o
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Borjas, George “Heaven’s Doors:
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Increasing Labor Mobility 37 contri
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Increasing Labor Mobility 39 must h
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Worker categories covered Specifica
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Provisions on professionals Annex o
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Increasing Labor Mobility 45 The EU
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Table 2.7. Agreements between Austr
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Increasing Labor Mobility 55 Figure
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Increasing Labor Mobility 57 Bilate
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Increasing Labor Mobility 59 Jamaic
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Increasing Labor Mobility 61 factor
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Increasing Labor Mobility 63 indivi
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Increasing Labor Mobility 65 that a
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3 Legal Services: Does More Trade R
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Legal Services: Does More Trade Rhy
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Table 3.3. Trade in Legal Services:
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Table 3.8. Uruguay Round Commitment
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100 International Trade in Services
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Page 281 and 282: Uganda 3.6 — 306 5.1 — 170.0 41
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Accounting Services 265 exceeding 5
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Accounting Services 267 Links to la
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Accounting Services 269 The account
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Accounting Services 271 Box 8.3: Ex
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Accounting Services 273 service mar
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Accounting Services 275 Table 8.5.
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Accounting Services 277 Box 8.6: Re
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Accounting Services 279 Box 8.7: An
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Accounting Services 281 Table 8.6.
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Accounting Services 283 Restriction
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Accounting Services 285 Commercial
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Accounting Services 287 Colleges of
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Accounting Services 289 Administrat
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Accounting Services 291 IESBA (Inte
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350 Index Association of Certified
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352 Index Convention on Combating B
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354 Index Former Yugoslav Republic
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356 Index International Public Sect
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358 Index migrants. See labor mobil
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360 Index public-private partnershi
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362 Index Thailand construction ser
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ECO-AUDIT Environmental Benefits St
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