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Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends81Box 3.6 Examples of employment disruptions by industry due to the 9/11 attack, New York City, USThe financial services industry appears to have been the mostdirectly affected sector by far. In New York City, the number ofjobs in the securities industry fell by 12,000, or 7 per cent, inOctober 2001, and by an additional 6000 from October 2001 toJune 2002. In addition, the banking industry saw a net job loss of8000, or 8 per cent, in October and lost another 1000 jobsthrough June 2002. Net job losses in these key financial industriestotalled 20,000 in October and another 7000 through June 2002.The restaurant industry also sustained steep job lossesimmediately following the attack. For the city overall, the numberof jobs at bars and restaurants – which was imperceptibly affectedat the national level – fell by an estimated 9000 (6 per cent) inOctober, but rebounded fully by December and held steady up toJune 2002. However, these are net changes and do not capture thegeographical distribution of employment in this industry. Thus, it isnot clear if restaurant employment in the areas closest to theWorld Trade Center – the Financial District, Tribeca andChinatown – has fully rebounded to pre-attack levels.The hotel industry lost an estimated 6000 jobs, or 15per cent, city-wide between September 2001 and March 2002.This reflected the drop-off in tourism, although 5000 of those jobswere lost in October alone.The steep decline in the number of people travelling alsoled to job losses in areas away from the World Trade Center site– in particular, at John F. Kennedy International Airport andLaGuardia Airport, both in the borough of Queens. The numberof jobs in the city’s air transportation industry fell by about11,000, or 20 per cent. Almost all of this decline occurred inOctober and November 2001.Although other industries, such as business services,apparel manufacturing, printing and publishing, were also presumablyaffected, largely because of their strong concentration inLower Manhattan, there is no indication of any significant shift inemployment trends following 11 September. However, it should benoted that many business owners and workers who did not losetheir jobs evidently suffered income losses because of the disruptionsin the weeks and months immediately following the attack.This is of particular concern in the restaurant and apparel industries,where workers’ pay depends on business volume.Source: Bram et al, 2002, p8employees, and increasing restrictions on theirmovements on the ramps, in baggage areas and in theterminals.• Purchasing, by airlines, of more powerful scanners thatcan detect explosives in baggage.• Deployment of armed, plain clothes, Sky Marshals(security guards) on some domestic and internationalflights.• Increased surveillance of baggage and baggage handlersat airports.Increased security measures that have been undertaken withrespect to seaports, bus stations and train stations are:• Installation of more surveillance cameras to monitordaily activities.• Deployment of more armed security guards (with guns,tear gas, pepper spray and clubs).• Establishment of more checkpoints to scan and examinepeople and baggage.Other impacts of urban terrorism include the developmentof an atmosphere of fear, which might be exacerbated byterror alert levels adopted in affected countries; posttraumaticstress disorder and increased depressionexperienced by victims of terrorist attacks; and increasedspending on public security, especially in terms of surveillance,emergency planning and training of operatives incounter-terrorism. In the case of cities in developingcountries, such increased spending diverts scarce resourcesaway from productive investment in areas designed topromote growth, poverty eradication and sustainable urbandevelopment.CONCLUDING REMARKSAlthough crime and violence are found in virtually all citiesacross all global regions, most places are safe and mostcitizens are neither perpetrators nor victims of crime andviolence. Crime, and especially street crimes such as robberyand assaults, tends to be concentrated in certain city areasand neighbourhoods, which are often the ‘worst’ urbanlocations in terms of property value and environmental risksfrom disasters and hazards. Nevertheless, even though localized,crime, violence and the fear of crime remainfundamental threats to urban safety and security and to thesustainability of urban places. They are predictable andespecially problematic challenges to vulnerable populations– the poor, young males, minorities, women and children –in distressed neighbourhoods, generally, and in developingand transitional countries of Latin America and Africa, wherecrime rates have grown dramatically within burgeoningurban centres. In this context, crime and violence rates areassociated with the pace of urbanization and the size ofurban populations, although these are variable predictorsrelative to changes in crime and violence, particularly whenspecific types of crimes are taken into account.Nevertheless, increasing urbanization in regions of the worldthat are least able to cope with existing problems portendsthe need for new or reinvigorated policy and programmedirections to cope with crime and violence.To be effective, these policies and programmes willneed to recognize the dimensions of crime and violence atall levels and to take into account the complex risk factorsthat underlie them, as discussed above. Among responsesthat are possible in framing strategies are those aimed atbetter urban planning, design and governance, which incor-