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22Understanding Urban Safety and SecurityNOTES1 Pelling, 2003.2 United Nations Commissionon Human Security, 2003.3 Ibid, piv.4 Ibid, pp4–6.5 Ibid, p4.6 Sen, 2000.7 UN-Habitat and ESCAP,2002.8 UN-Habitat, 2003d, 2006e.9 UN-Habitat, 2003f.10 Tannerfeldt and Ljung, 2006.11 Mohan, 2002a.12 Gold, 2000a.13 Appadurai, 2006.14 UNDP, 2004.15 There is a large literature onurban crime and violence. Auseful overview and set ofcase studies on this subjectis in Environment andUrbanization (2004) vol 16,no 2, October.16 Reza et al, 2001.17 WHO, 2004a.18 Gurr, 1981.19 Monkkonen, 2001a, p81.20 Reza et al, 2001, Figure 1.21 This work has beenextended more recently inEisner, 2003.22 Simmel, 1903.23 Bronfenbrenner, 1988.24 WHO, 2004a, p425 Moser and McIlwaine, 2004,p99.26 Ibid.27 Nisbett and Cohen, 1996.28 Robben and Nordstrom,1995, p8, quoted in Moserand McIlwaine, 2004.29 Simone, 2005.30 Chua, 2003.31 Huntington, 1996.32 Appadurai, 2006, pp15–16;see also Huntington, 1996.33 Balbus, 1973.34 Appadurai, 2006.35 WHO, 2004a, Table 1, p14.36 Ibid, 2004a, p13.37 Ibid, 2004a, px.38 Ibid, 2004a, p6.39 Ibid, 2004a, p27.40 Sanin and Jaramillo, 2004.41 Boisteau and Pedrazzini,2006.42 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p12.43 Viva Rio, 2005.44 Ibid, p24.45 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, pp2–3.46 Shaw, 2002.47 UN-Habitat and UNDP,2002.48 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p7.49 Ibid, 2006, p8.50 Ibid, 2006, p12.51 Dowdney, 2005, quoted inMinistry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p12.52 Moser and Holland, 1997b.53 See, for example, thebottom-up researchmethodology proposed byMoser and McIlwaine, 1999.54 Vanderschueren, 2000, p2.55 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p9.56 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p10.57 UN-Habitat and OHCHR,2002.58 Durand-Lasserve, 2006.59 Ibid, p3.60 Durand-Lasserve andRoyston, 2002, p3.61 UN-Habitat, 2005c, p4; UNMillennium Project, 2005.62 Durand-Lasserve andRoyston, 2002a.63 Royston, 2002, p165.64 See, for example, Turner andFichter, 1972; World Bank,1975.65 UN-Habitat, 2005c.66 Hardoy and Satterthwaite,1989.67 See Tibaijuka, 2005.68 World Bank, 1993b.69 There is a long tradition ofthese studies going back tothe 1960s – for example,Marris, 1961; Haeringer,1969; Cohen, 1974.70 See, for example, casestudies in Environment andUrbanization (2003) vol 17,no 1; or Payne, 2005.71 Angel, 2000.72 Farvacque-Vitkovic et al,2005.73 World Bank, 2006a, p3;Guha-Sapir et al, 2004.74 Ibid.75 Guha-Sapir et al, 2004.76 World Bank, 2006a, p3.77 IFRC, 2001, quoted inWorld Bank, 2006a, p11.Additional data is presentedin Chapter 7.78 World Bank, 2006a, p5.79 Linnerooth-Bayer andAmendola, 2000.80 Guha-Sapir et al, 2004.81 Klinenberg, 2002b.82 Other, non-official, estimatesput the death toll of theTangshan earthquake as highas 655,000 (see Wikipedia,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll, table titled ‘Tendeadliest natural disasters’).83 Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Canada, 2006, p7.84 See Washington, 2007.85 This argument may notalways apply to urban crimeand violence, which, whileconsiderably more complicated,both at the individualand societal level, is neverthelessnot a preferredoccupation if people haveother opportunities thatallow them to earn incomesto meet their needs.86 See Orr et al, 2007.87 See Orr, 2007.88 Thompson, 2007.89 See Rowbottom, 2007.90 Harvey, 2000.