Download the file - United Nations Rule of Law

Policy responses to disaster risk211by strengthening community understanding of risk, informationnetworks and disaster response of partners andcommunities. This is an example of an early warning projectembedded within a wider risk reduction programme. Itinvolved administrative representatives, health and educationstaff, local Red Cross representatives, and thesub-commissions for education and civil protection set up inthe wake of the volcanic eruption of 2002. 73Box 8.14 presents a success story of a people-centredearly warning experience from Honduras that built localresilience through early warning, even when national earlywarning systems failed.Effective early warning requires trust between thosegiving and receiving information. Some degree of coordinationcan give legitimacy to national early warning systems,although this is not always the case, especially where pastexperience of the state has eroded local trust in its institutions.The experience of La Masica is not unique in showingthe advantages of decentralized systems. Transparent andclear information flows can help to build trust by constrainingopportunities for the concealment of imminent hazards.Local and national governments have sometimes kept thepublic in the dark when receiving technical information onimminent threats to prevent unease among investors,especially in tourist economies. There are also cases wherethe public may refuse to heed early warnings from authorities.In both cases, clear and balanced information is critical,even when some level of uncertainty remains. 74Communicating risk to the public is less problematicin urban than rural areas because of the high density ofcommunication infrastructure and social networks. This maynot hold true for smaller, isolated and informal settlementsor slums. Maintaining early warning communication systemswhere hazards are infrequent but potentially capable ofdelivering a high impact is especially difficult. Communicationinfrastructure may not be tested regularly andsocial contacts might be lost over time. One way around thisis to build early warning communication systems on top ofeveryday communication networks. For instance, wheremobile phones are common, they offer a potential networkfor spreading early warning and preparedness advice.Response capacityMore difficult in cities is the coordination of action inresponse to alerts and early warnings. Pre-planning and clearcommunication with the public are needed to preventinappropriate action or panic. In Lagos (Nigeria), a citywhere trust in officials is strained, more than 1000 peoplewere killed in 2002, most by drowning, while fleeing inpanic from an explosion in an army barrack. 75 This contrastswith Hong Kong, where tropical cyclone bulletins includepractical advice on securing homes and businesses and howto access more information. 76In congested cities with overburdened transportnetworks, evacuation can be challenging. Cuba has perhapsthe best track record on urban evacuation with a wellmanagedand frequently practised evacuation strategy as partof its risk reduction system (see Box 8.15). Clear lines ofBox 8.14 People-centred early warning: La Masica, HondurasThe experience of La Masica in Honduras shows that small urban centres can successfully buildtheir own resilience to disaster risk through people-centred early warning. The system developedin La Masica is relatively low cost and operates independently of outside information flowsor resources, thus increasing its robustness during times of emergency.La Masica’s early warning system was put to the test during Hurricane Mitch in 1998.Hurricane Mitch killed over 20,000 people in Nicaragua and Honduras. In La Masica, despiteflooding and economic damage caused by the nearby River Lean, none of the municipality’s25,000 residents was killed.The early warning system had been initiated a few years before Hurricane Mitch, withthe full involvement of the municipality’s residents. The area had suffered in 1974 fromHurricane Fifi, and from smaller flooding incidents. Recognition of the community’s highexposure to hazard catalysed the local early warning and preparedness programme. Theprogramme included participatory risk assessments with local people observing river flow, theestablishment of a local risk management organization, and the drawing-up of emergency plansfor responding to rising water levels. Many of those involved in the programme were women.The success of La Masica’s local early warning system contrasts with the national floodwarning system, which was disabled by flood waters and technical difficulties with satellite data.In this case, local organization based on simple technology provided greater resilience than thenational high-tech alternative.Source: Lavell, 2005, in Wisner et al, 2005authority and cultural acceptance of large-scale public evacuationare elements in this success. In 2004, HurricaneCharley severely damaged 70,000 houses, but killed onlyfour people thanks, in part, to the evacuation of over 2million people. 77 The Cuban system contrasts with that ofthe US, which has increasingly relied on individuals to takeresponsibility for their own evacuation and safety followingan early warning. Huge numbers of people successfully dothis. Over 2.5 million people were evacuated from Floridafollowing an early warning in advance of HurricaneCharley. 78 But, as was seen in 2005 during HurricaneKatrina, there will always be a sizeable urban population wholacks access to private transportation and will rely upon awell-organized public evacuation service.FINANCING URBAN RISKMANAGEMENTCity authorities seldom generate sufficient funds to meet alltheir development and risk reduction needs. Thus, they facethe twin challenge of attracting finance and balancing theconditionalities that come with this support against localpriorities and strategies for disaster risk management.Inefficient or inadequate fiscal decentralization furtherreduces the financial capacity of local governments. This isespecially the case in poorer or rapidly expanding citieswhere the proportion of residents and organizations whocontribute to the city revenue can be low.National governments finance urban infrastructureworks through project grants or line financing throughministries with responsibility for infrastructure in the urbansector. In Guyana, central government is responsible for seadefence and land drainage work, which nonetheless protectsEffective earlywarning requirestrust between thosegiving and receivinginformation