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192Natural and human-made disastersTable 7.12Disaster incidence andimpacts in Europe(1996–2005)Note: For all disaster types,small events with less than 10mortalities or 100 affectedpeople are not included.Source: EM-DAT, CREDdatabase, University ofLouvain, Belgium, www.emdat.netNumber of events Mortality People affected (thousands) Economic loss (US$million, 2005 value)Avalanches/landslides 18 389 14 20Drought/famines 14 0 1063 8019Earthquakes/tsunamis 52 18,584 4016 29,609Extreme temperatures 79 48,630 771 6706Floods 229 1422 5048 47,860Volcanic eruptions 2 0 0 24Windstorms 110 610 7025 18,138Industrial accidents 56 844 71 11,100Miscellaneous accidents 73 1474 14 874Oceania records thelowest incidence ofdisasters for anyregion and hazardtype…EuropeThe role played by relatively high levels of economic developmentand political stability in shifting the impact of disastersfrom human to physical assets can be seen most clearly inthis region (see Table 7.12). This is exemplified by volcaniceruptions, where Europe suffers the highest economic lossesof any region, but no people have been killed or affected.Vulnerability and human loss is highest, compared to otherworld regions, for extreme temperature events. Between1996 and 2005, Europe experienced 47 per cent of allextreme temperature events, but 81 per cent of all mortalities.Compared with Europe, the Americas experienced lessthan half the number of extreme weather events, withcomparatively few deaths, but four times the numberaffected. This reflects the different severity of events, butalso greater investment in early warning and response forextreme temperature in the Americas.Within Europe, floods were the most common disasterbetween 1996 and 2005. Mortality was highest forextreme temperatures, with around 35,000 prematuredeaths from the 2003 heat wave alone. 105Europe is a high-income and highly urbanized region.Risk profiles for this region are split between the east andwest. Western Europe has strong states and civil societiesproviding good capacity for resilience. It is also a region withrelatively low levels of hazard exposure. Eastern Europe ismore variable, with examples of strong states but weak civilsociety, and with governance challenges that limit regulationof industrial activity and capacity for top-down programmesaimed at vulnerability reduction. This region is also economicallypoorer than Western Europe.OceaniaOceania records the lowest incidence of disasters for anyregion and hazard type, with the exception of volcaniceruption (see Table 7.13). This is the only region not torecord any industrial accidents from 1996 to 2005. Theregion had the lowest economic losses and absolute numberof people killed and affected by all disaster types. Within theregion, disasters are most commonly associated withwindstorms, and these result in the greatest economiclosses. Earthquakes and tsunamis account for the highestlevels of mortality.The region is of mixed economic status, but with highlevels of urbanization. Poorer countries also tend to havegreater political tensions, often between indigenous andimmigrant populations. Many are small island developingstates facing particular governance challenges within acontext of limited human resources. Larger countries,especially New Zealand and Australia, have strong states andcivil societies, as well as robust economies. Yet, inequalityundermines resilience in these multicultural societies. Forlow-lying small island states, sea-level rise due to climatechange will have catastrophic implications.CONCLUDING REMARKSUrban disasters are a product of failed urban governance andplanning. Wealth is necessary for building resilience at thelocal and city levels, but is not sufficient in the absence ofgovernance. Without good governance and open participationin urban planning, economic development too oftenleads to inequality and failures to implement regulation inthe industrial and residential sectors.The relationships between urbanization and disasterrisk are dynamic. Past urban civilizations have collapsedTable 7.13Disaster incidence andimpacts in Oceania(1996–2005)Note: For all disaster types,small events with less than 10mortalities or 100 affectedpeople are not included.Source: EM-DAT, CREDdatabase, University ofLouvain, Belgium, www.emdat.netNumber of events Mortality People affected (thousands) Economic loss (US$million, 2005 value)Avalanches/landslides 8 128 1 No dataDrought/famines 8 88 1083 329Earthquakes/tsunamis 9 2201 36 No dataExtreme temperatures 1 0 0 221Floods 38 34 96 1735Volcanic eruptions 7 4 49 No dataWindstorms 72 255 832 2859Industrial accidents 0 0 0 No dataMiscellaneous accidents 4 46 12 No data
Disaster risk: Conditions, trends and impacts193because of overstretching the ecological basis of theireconomies, leading to political conflict and terminal decline.Future new risks might include those associated with globalenvironmental change and also with the increasing connectivityof urban centres worldwide that enables thetransmission of economic impacts through transport andfinance networks.Global hazard maps can be used to indicate the distributionof risk. Richer countries are most at risk fromabsolute economic loss, whereas poorer countries suffermore human loss, as well as economic loss, as a proportionof GDP. Human-made risk and recorded loss is greatest inlow-income countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Thelargest concentrations of urban populations, in megacities,represent focal points for urban risk, especially those citiesexposed to multiple hazards and with limited capacity forrisk management.Disaster impacts are seldom fully measured. This is aparticular problem for cities since they house much of theaccumulated cultural heritage of the world. Direct economicloss from damage and human impacts can be accounted for;but longer-term impacts on economies, or individual loss andpsychological trauma, are much more difficult to measure.Disaster losses are often compounded when one eventtriggers a secondary event, or when recovery and reconstructionactivities lead to ecological damage and socialdisruption. The social and political impacts of disasters areespecially sensitive to reconstruction, with this being anopportunity for improvements in governance, as well as inbasic needs.This chapter identified the following aspects of urbanizationthat shape disaster risk:1 Large cities and megacities concentrate and magnifyrisk.2 Smaller cities (less than 500,000 residents) that arehome to just over half of the world’s urban populationalso experience exposure to multiple risks, but arelikely to have limited formal capacity and organized civilsociety with which to build resilience.3 Ongoing demographic and social changes in cities are achallenge since social groups at risk may alter, requiringflexibility in disaster management. Nevertheless, theeconomically poor, politically marginalized and sociallyisolated (often women) are consistently the mostvulnerable.4 Urbanization processes modify the hazard profile of thecity directly – for example, through the urbanization ofhill slopes and floodplains – but also indirectly as theimpacts of climate change hit cities (the sites for a largeproportion of greenhouse gas emissions).5 Building standards are in place in almost all cities, butthey are seldom implemented. This, more than anyother policy challenge, highlights the need for socialpolicy to connect with technical and engineeringsolutions to risk management.6 The increasing numbers of urban residents forced tolive in slums and squatter settlements is an indication ofthe depth of failure of urban governance to provideeven the most basic needs and to protect the political,social, economic and cultural rights of all. Slums andsquatter settlements are places of great hazard, but alsoof great potential. Governance structures that canpartner with this local energy can reduce risk.7 Urban planning is seriously under capacity in mostcities. It is almost impossible for many planning departmentsto keep pace with rapid urbanization. Newtechniques in urban planning are needed that canextend formal practices into the informal housingsector. Meeting the MDGs is dependent upon this.Taking urban disaster risk management seriously requires anintegrated approach. For this reason, it is of concern thatvery few national Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers includerisk management. Although it is not unusual for urban plansto integrate hazard mitigation, the next step is to match thiswith a commitment for vulnerability reduction that includesrelevant social and economic policy.Comparing urban risk at the regional scale re-emphasizesthe centrality of urban governance as a driver for urbanrisk profiles. In those cities where strong government andcivil society sectors take risk reduction seriously, great gainscan be made.NOTES1 One exception is theAustralian government,which defines a small disasteras one where stateexpenditure (on all assistancemeasures) does notexceed AU$240,000(US$185,500), roughlyequivalent to the cost ofrepairing 20 houses.2 Kasperson et al, 1996.3 Blaikie et al, 1994.4 Data is drawn from the EM-DAT, CRED database. Onlyevents that exceed aminimum threshold of 10deaths, 100 people affectedor a call for internationalassistance or declaration ofa state of emergency areincluded. Consequently,many small disasters willhave been excluded. This islikely to have affected dataon transport and is alsoreflected in the absence of acategory for house fires.5 This is a term used in EM-DAT, CRED to describeaccidents involving mechanizedmodes of transport. Itcomprises of four disastersubsets involving air, boat,rail and road accidents.6 The current millennium hasbeen dubbed the ‘urbanmillennium’ given that, in2007, for the first time inhistory, the world’s urbanpopulation will equal therural population (UN-Habitat, 2006e).7 Kreimer et al, 2003.8 IFRC, 2003.9 Ibid.10 A global geography ofnatural disaster risk basedon exposed populations andpast losses (1980 to 2001)illustrates that bothpredominantly rural andurban regions are at riskworldwide. Loss to hydrologicalhazard (floods,landslides and hurricanes) ismost widespread, affectinghuman settlements in China,Southeast Asia and CentralAmerica, and in a band fromEastern Europe throughCentral and Eastern Asia.Loss to geological hazard(earthquakes and volcanoeruptions) is most concentratedin Central Asia andthe Mediterranean andPacific Rim states (e.g. Japan,the US and CentralAmerica). The Americasshow variable loss, with lowlevels of loss in NorthAmerica. Central Asia isexposed to losses from thegreatest number of hazardtypes. Likewise, the BlackSea region, Central Americaand Japan face multiplehazards. Data from Dilley etal, 2005; maps also adaptedfrom this source.11 Ibid.12 Ibid.13 EM-DAT, CRED, Universityof Louvain, Belgium,
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ENHANCING URBAN SAFETYAND SECURITY
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First published by Earthscan in the
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INTRODUCTIONEnhancing Urban Safety
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe preparation of
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xEnhancing Urban Safety and Securit
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xiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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xviEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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xviiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Sec
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LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES ANDTABLESFIG
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xxiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xxviiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Se
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4Understanding Urban Safety and Sec
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1CHAPTERCURRENT THREATS TO URBANSAF
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Current threats to urban safety and
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2CHAPTERVULNERABILITY, RISK ANDRESI
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Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
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46Urban crime and violenceBox II.1
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48Urban crime and violenceit has mu
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50Urban crime and violenceFormal an
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52Urban crime and violenceContact c
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54Urban crime and violencePer 100,0
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56Urban crime and violenceBurglary
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58Urban crime and violencePercentag
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60Urban crime and violenceFigure 3.
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62Urban crime and violenceTable 3.3
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64Urban crime and violenceYouth gan
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68Urban crime and violenceType of v
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70Urban crime and violenceFrom a pl
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72Urban crime and violenceOne viole
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74Urban crime and violenceHigh homi
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76Urban crime and violenceAbused ch
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78Urban crime and violenceGenerally
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82Urban crime and violenceporate cr
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4CHAPTERURBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:PO
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86Urban crime and violenceUN-Habita
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88Urban crime and violenceBox 4.2 T
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90Urban crime and violenceBox 4.4 T
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92Urban crime and violenceLegislati
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94Urban crime and violenceabove wha
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96Urban crime and violenceCampaigns
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98Urban crime and violenceAvailable
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100Urban crime and violenceBox 4.7
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102Urban crime and violenceIn some
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104Urban crime and violenceInitiati
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106Urban crime and violenceThe most
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108Urban crime and violenceVandersc
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112Security of tenureBox III.1 Secu
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5CHAPTERSECURITY OF TENURE:CONDITIO
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116Security of tenureTable 5.1A gen
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118Security of tenureFully legalDeg
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120Security of tenureBox 5.4 Securi
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122Security of tenureUrban tenurein
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124Security of tenureAt least 2 mil
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126Security of tenureMarket-basedev
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128Security of tenureBox 5.11 Urban
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130Security of tenureOperationMuram
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132Security of tenureControl of lan
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134Security of tenureBox 5.18 Secur
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136Security of tenureNOTES1 Habitat
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138Security of tenureBox 6.1 The Mi
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140Security of tenureIt would be fo
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Page 199 and 200: Introduction165One of the key trend
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242Towards safer and more secure ci
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11CHAPTERENHANCING TENURE SECURITYA
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276Enhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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12CHAPTERMITIGATING THE IMPACTS OFD
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304Summary of case studiesSince its
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306Summary of case studies• The e
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308Summary of case studiestions wit
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310Summary of case studiesenvironme
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312Summary of case studiesothers. O
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314Summary of case studiespurposes.
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316Summary of case studiesThese eff
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318Summary of case studiesdevelopme
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320Summary of case studiestion exer
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322Summary of case studiesHousing r
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324Summary of case studiesProlonged
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326Summary of case studiesmomentum
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330Statistical annexIslands, Micron
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332Statistical annexNOMENCLATURE AN
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334Statistical annexPopulation, urb
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336Statistical annexSOURCES OF DATA
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410TABLE C.7continuedEnhancing Urba
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INDEXACHR (Asian Coalition for Hous
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Index435security of tenure 134confl
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Index437domestic abuse see intimate
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Index439hazard management 169hazard
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Index441Kosovo, security of tenure
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Index443participation 38, 296-299pa
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Index445individual 34-35municipal f
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Index447gun ownership 78Homeless Pe
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