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Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends61refers to the ‘levels of different types of organized crimeactivities, such as extortion and drugs, arms and peopletrafficking, as perceived by potential victim groups andexperts’. 80 That marker and four others – the extent of theshadow economy; the percentage of unsolved homicides; thehigh level of corruption among public officials; and theextent of money laundering – are used in Table 3.3 to rankregions of the world on the basis of their levels of organizedcrime activities. Table 3.3 shows that Oceania/Australia hasthe lowest composite rank (least), while the Caribbean hasthe highest (most) in terms of organized crime activity.Although there is general consistency betweenregional scores and the rank order, a cautionary note isnecessary with regard to these numbers, given that data ismissing for some countries. Nevertheless, the data is suggestiveof regional differences that tend to be consistent withcountry data. Figure 3.16 illustrates the manifestations oforganized crime in various nations of the world using theOCPI.The index shows low levels of organized crime inCanada and Australia. The same is true for Northern Europe,with levels increasing as one moves south and east into Italy,Spain and especially into Eastern European nations such asRussia and Ukraine. South Asia, particularly Pakistan andBangladesh, stand out with comparatively high levels oforganized crime, while India and China are seen as havinghigher activity than some southern European countries, suchas Italy. The African nations of Nigeria, Angola andMozambique have the highest composite scores. In LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, the countries of Haiti,Guatemala, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Jamaicastand out with the highest composite index scores. 81Conditions supporting the growth of organized crime,such as globalization of markets and increasingly sophisticatedcommunications technology, are not likely to diminishin the near future. Facilitated by developments in theseareas, organized crime has flourished in urban drug traffickingand trafficking in arms and in people. The followingsub-sections describe global, regional and national conditionsand trends related to these facets of organized crime.■ Illicit drug trafficking and useDrug trafficking, simply defined as buying and selling illegaldrugs, is a huge worldwide industry that is often theprovince of organized crime. Moreover, drug trafficking anddrug use are fundamental risk factors underlying crime andviolence at global, national and local levels. Drug addiction,particularly in urban areas, fuels crime and violence,increases policing and healthcare costs, disintegratesfamilies and generally diminishes the quality of life. Whilelong-term overall trends point to some successes in combatingthe availability of drugs, such as the reduction of cocacultivation in the Andean region and the decline of opiumproduction in Asia’s Golden Triangle, these gains may beoffset by setbacks elsewhere, such as the increasing demandfor cocaine in parts of Europe, amphetamines in Asia and theUS and new transit routes for illicit drugs that have openedin West Africa. The extent of global illicit drug use isdepicted in Figure 3.17. This is estimated to be 5 per cent ofAsia Political parties Parliament/legislature Police Tax revenue(12 countries) 4.2 3.9 3.9 3.5Africa (8 countries) Police Political parties Customs Parliament/legislature4.4 4.2 4.0 3.8Western Europe Political parties Parliament/legislature Business/private sector Media(16 countries) 3.7 3.3 3.3 3.3Central and Eastern Political parties Police Parliament/legislature Legal system/judiciaryEurope (14 countries) 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9Latin America and Political parties Parliament/legislature Police Legal system/judiciarythe Caribbean 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.3(15 countries)the worlds’ population aged 15 to 64, or 200 million people.Trafficking is one of the major components of theillicit drug problem. The other components are cultivation,production, retailing and consumption. Of these components,the least is known about trafficking, althoughinformation can be obtained indirectly through studies ofcriminal group activities and through estimates of drugsupplies, areas under cultivation and drug seizures. Seizureand trafficking routes for drugs vary by region, by nation andby the type of drug in question. 82There are three major destinations for cannabis resin:West and Central Europe (transiting Spain and TheNetherlands); the Near and Middle East/Southwest Asiaregion (with supplies originating in Afghanistan andPakistan); and North Africa. Much of the cannabis resinsupplied to West and Central Europe and to North Africa isproduced in Morocco. In 2004, more cannabis resin wasseized in Spain in 2004 than in any other nation.The world’s main cocaine trafficking routes continueto run from the Andean region, notably Colombia, to the US,with Europe as the second most important destination forcocaine produced in the Andean region. The trafficking anduse of cocaine in Asia and Oceania is low compared to therest of the world, while the use in West and Central Africaincreased in 2004 on account of the region being a transshipmentpoint to European markets.Trafficking illicit drugs is a major profit generator fororganized crime groups, who often plough their profits intothe purchase and subsequent marketing of illegal weaponsand engage in trafficking people. The connections betweendrugs, arms and human trafficking are complex and notPercentage of respondents806040200Table 3.2The most corruptsectors by regionNote: 1 = not at all corrupt;5 = extremely corrupt.Source: TransparencyInternational, 2005a, p5Drug addiction,particularly in urbanareas, fuels crimeand violence …disintegratesfamilies and generallydiminishes thequality of lifeFigure 3.15Bribes for publicservicesNote: Percentage of respondentswho paid a bribe forpublic services they wereentitled to.Source: TransparencyInternational, 2005a, p15BoliviaCameroonDominican RepublicEthiopiaGhanaGuatemalaIndiaKenyaLithuaniaMexicoMoldovaNigeriaPakistanParaguayPeruRomaniaRussiaSerbiaTogoUkraine