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Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends83significant change.154 Clarke, 1997.155 Brantingham andBrantingham, 1991.156 Schneider and Kitchen,2002, 2007.157 There is a large and growingliterature in this field providingempirical research tosupport place- andopportunity-based crimeprevention/reductiontheories. For overviews,including discussions oftheory, empirical work andpractical applications, seePoyner, 1983; Felson, 1986;Brantingham andBrantingham, 1991; Taylor,1999; Felson, 2002;Schneider and Kitchen,2002, 2007; Colquhoun,2004; Cozens et al, 2004;ODPM and the HomeOffice, 2004. For someexamples and evaluations ofspecific empirical work, seeNewman, 1973; Beavon et al,1994; Sherman, 1995; Eckand Wartell, 1996; La Vigne,1996; Clarke, 1997; Shermanet al, 1998; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Schweitzer etal, 1999; Farrington andWelsh, 2002; Hillier, 2004.158 Schneider and Kitchen,2002, 2007.159 Knowles, 2003a, 2003b.160 Schneider and Kitchen,2007.161 Kitchen, 2005.162 Schneider and Kitchen,2002, 2007.163 LaFree and Tseloni, 2006.164 Wilson, 1978.165 Gimode, 2001.166 WHO, 2002.167 Center for Family Policy andResearch, 2006.168 Ibid, 2006.169 Small Arms Survey, 2006a,p297.170 Ibid.171 Levitt, 2004.172 Small Arms Survey, 2006a.173 World Bank, 2003c.174 Saunders and Taylor, 2002.175 Lock, 2006.176 Moser et al, 2005; Briceno-Leon and Zubillaga, 2002.177 De Cesare, 1997, cited inMoser et al, 2005.178 Rose, 2006.179 Sinclair and Mills, 2003.180 Rose, 2006.181 LaFree and Tseloni, 2006.182 LaFree, 2002.183 Manso et al, 2005.184 Caldeira, 2000; Rodgers,2003; Blandy et al, 2003.185 Small Arms Survey, 2006b.186 UNODC, 2005a.187 Moser, 2004.188 See International ActionNetwork on Small Arms,undated b.189 While women areextremely vulnerable to guncrimes, statistically, marginalizedyoung men are themost likely victims of smallarms violence. They can becaught up in a range ofsocio-cultural pressureswhere guns become statussymbols of masculinity andpower, especially in theabsence of political andeconomic opportunities. Forexample, in the favelas ofRio de Janeiro, the combinationof availability of guns,drugs and cultural valuesdictating that men do notaccept insults have helped topush the city’s homiciderates for young low-incomemales to record heightsover the past 25 years; seeZaluar, 2007.190 Morrison and Orlando,1999.191 Buvinic and Morrison, 1999.192 Moser and Holland, 1997b.193 Hamermesh, 1998.194 UNODC, 2005b.195 Institute for SecurityStudies, 2002.196 World Bank, 2003a; Krkoskaand Robeck, 2006.197 Gimode (2001) notes that in1996, tourism accounted for13 per cent of total revenuein Kenya, which was a far cryfrom the preceding decades.198 Boamah and Stanley, 2007.199 Ibid.200 Tewarie, 2006; Adams, 2003.201 Adams, 2003.202 UNODC, 2005b; Brunetti etal, undated.203 UNODC, 2005b.204 Londono andGuerrero,1999, cited inMoser et al, 2005.205 Gaviria, 2002.206 Zaluar, 2007, p.15.207 Gibbons, 2002.208 Mayhew, 2003.209 Sampson and Wooldredge,1986.210 See Schwartz et al, 2003.211 This sequence is derivedfrom Felson, 2002.212 van Ness, 2005, based onICVS data.213 Budd, 1999.214 Gibbons, 2002.215 Moser et al, 2005.216 www.humansecuritycities.org,2007, p27.217 Gimode, 2001.218 Blakely and Snyder, 1997.219 Blandy et al, 2003; Blandy,2005.220 Mycoo, 2006.221 Blakeley and Snyder, 1997;Blandy, 2005.222 Atlas and LeBlanc, 1994.223 Clarke, 2003; Schneider andKitchen, 2007.224 See the Gauteng ProvincialLegislature, which passedthe Rationalization of LocalGovernment Affairs Act in1998.225 Zaluar, 2007.226 Buvinic et al, 1999, cited inMoser et al, 2005.227 Ibid, 2005.228 Humantrafficking.org, 2005.229 WHO, 2001.230 Gimode, 2001.231 HRW, undated b.232 UNODC, 2005b.233 See United Nations,undated,‘Backgrounder 8’,www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/habitat/background/bg8.asp.234 World Bank, 2006d.235 Bosshard and Lawrence,2006.236 Tanzi and Davoodi, 1997;Tanzi, 1998; Wei, 1999;Arimah, 2005.237 Zaluar, 2007.238 Rodgers, 2003.239 Ibid.240 Zaluar, 2007.241 See Times of India, 2006.242 See Humantrafficking.org,undated.243 IRIN News, 2007a.244 According to joint estimatesdeveloped by UNAIDS,UNICEF, USAID and the USBureau of Census in 2002,the total number of livingchildren under age 15whose mother, father orboth parents have died ofAIDS in sub-Saharan Africais 11 million (SynergyProject, 2002). See HRW,undated a.245 Newman, 1973.246 Rodgers, 2003.247 Masese, 2007.248 Beall, 2006, p114.249 Beall, 2006.250 Glaeser and Shapiro, 2002.251 Bram et al 2002.252 Ibid, p11.253 Ibid.254 Banarji, 1997 cited in Beall,2006.255 These measures are takenfrom Goodrich, 2002, p57.