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Key findings and messagesxxxireconstruction deepen existing socio-economic inequalities,thus creating vicious cycles of loss and vulnerability.Especially in poorer countries, women and children tend tobe most affected by disasters, as observed in the aftermathof the 2005 Indian Ocean Tsunami. The elderly and thosewith disabilities are often among the most vulnerable tonatural and human-made hazards.Economic losses associated with disasters haveincreased fourteen-fold since the 1950s and, during the lastdecade alone, disasters caused damage worth US$67 billionper year, on average. Wealthier countries incur highereconomic costs due to disasters, while poorer countries facegreater loss of human life. By destroying critical urban infrastructure,disasters can set back development gains andundermine progress in meeting the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). Cities connected to regional orglobal financial systems have the potential to spread thenegative consequences of disaster across the globaleconomy, with huge systemic loss effects.Large and megacities magnify risk since they concentratehuman, physical and financial capital and are frequentlyalso cultural and political centres. The potential for feedbackbetween natural and human-made hazards in large citiespresents a scenario for disaster on an unprecedented scale.Large urban economies that have sizeable foreign currencyreserves, high proportions of insured assets, comprehensivesocial services and diversified production are more likely toabsorb and spread the economic burden of disaster impacts.Smaller cities (less than 500,000 residents) that are home toover half of the world’s urban population are also exposed tomultiple risks, but often have less resilience against theeconomic consequences of disasters.There has been a 50 per cent rise in extreme weatherevents associated with climate change from the 1950s to the1990s, and the location of major urban centres in coastalareas exposed to hydro-meteorological hazards is a significantrisk factor: 21 of the 33 cities which are projected tohave a population of 8 million or more by 2015 are located invulnerable coastal zones and are increasingly vulnerable tosea-level rise. Around 40 per cent of the world’s populationlives less than 100 kilometres from the coast within reach ofsevere coastal storms. In effect, close to 100 million peoplearound the world live less than 1 metre above sea level.Thus, if sea levels rise by just 1 metre, many coastal megacitieswith populations of more than 10 million, such as Rio deJaneiro, New York, Mumbai, Dhaka, Tokyo, Lagos and Cairo,will be under threat.Additional factors rendering cities particularly vulnerableinclude rapid and chaotic urbanization; theconcentration of economic wealth in cities; environmentalmodifications through human actions; the expansion ofslums (often into hazardous locations); and the failure ofurban authorities to enforce building codes and land-useplanning. The urban landscape, which is characterized byclose proximity of residential, commercial and industrial landuses, generates new cocktails of hazard that require multiriskmanagement. The rapid supply of housing to meet risingdemand without compliance with safe building codes is aprincipal cause of disaster loss in urban areas. Lack ofresources and human skills – compounded by institutionalcultures that allow corruption – distort regulation andenforcement of building codes.Small-scale hazards, while less dramatic than majorhazards, have serious aggregate impacts. This is illustrated bythe incidence and impacts of road traffic accidents, whichresult in more deaths worldwide each year than any largenatural or human-made disaster type. Traffic accidents causeextensive loss of human lives and livelihoods in urban areas,killing over 1 million people globally every year. At least 90per cent of the deaths from traffic accidents occur in lowandmiddle-income countries. Young males and unprotectedroad users are particularly vulnerable to injury or death fromtraffic accidents. Traffic accidents cause substantialeconomic costs, amounting to an estimated US$518 billionworldwide every year. If no action is taken, traffic injuriesare expected to become the third major cause of disease andinjury in the world by 2020.Key messagesLand-use planning is a particularly effective instrument thatcity authorities can employ to reduce disaster risk by regulatingthe expansion of human settlements and infrastructure.Evidence-based land-use planning at the city level requiresaccurate and up-to-date data. Technological innovation canhelp to fill part of this gap; but the global proliferation ofslums also calls for more innovative and participatory landuseplanning procedures.The design of disaster-resistant buildings and infrastructurecan save many lives and assets in urban areas fromnatural and human-made disasters. The technological andengineering expertise to achieve this is available; but implementationis a major challenge. Interdisciplinary andinter-sectoral training, research and partnerships, especiallywith the private sector, can enhance implementation capacityat the city level. Interaction between differentpractitioners is essential to avoid professional separation andto foster the integration of risk reduction within urban developmentand planning efforts. Governance systems thatfacilitate local participation and decentralized leadership aremore effective, especially in the context of rapid and uncontrolledurbanization where capacities for oversight andenforcement are limited.Governments need to improve risk, hazard andvulnerability assessment and monitoring capacity throughincreased investment, with support from the internationalcommunity, where necessary. In addition to informing policyformulation, assessment data should feed into national initiativesthat aim to build a culture of awareness and safetythrough public education and information programmes.Furthermore, risk knowledge should be communicated torelevant actors through effective early warning systems inorder to enable timely and adequate responses to disasters.It is especially important that disaster risk reduction ismainstreamed within national development and povertyreduction policies and planning. Examples of disaster riskreduction strategies that have been designed purposely tocontribute to meeting individual MDG targets are available