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Urban crime and violence: Policy responses89governments, and in the US, particularly since the events of11 September 2001, the federal government has played aleading role in addressing the threat of terrorist attacks.Interestingly, much of the work undertaken under thisbanner seems to have come from the stable of CPTED and soit can be argued that the national thrust to address the threatof terror has advanced the cause of CPTED in the US furtherand faster than had a series of more localized initiativesduring the last couple of decades. 15■ Example from JamaicaThe third example of the role of national governments inaddressing urban crime and violence is taken from a developingcountry – Jamaica. Since Jamaica became independent in1962, it has experienced significant growth in violentcrimes. For instance, murder rates rose from 8.1 per100,000 people in 1970 to 40 per 100,000 in 2002, and 64per 100,000 in 2005, making Jamaica one of the nationswith the highest murder rates in the world. 20In response to escalating levels of violent crimes, theMinistry of National Security embarked on a major processof developing the necessary law enforcement infrastructurerequired to tackle the problem of crime and violence. Amultilevel approach is being used that involves new crimefighting initiatives, legislative reform, modernization of thepolice, and social intervention programmes at the communitylevel. For instance, modernization of police servicesincludes improving the professional standards of the police;improving their investigative capacity, specifically using anintelligence approach to operations; introduction of newtechnology; and utilization of personnel from overseas. Thelatter has entailed forging links with Scotland Yard, UK, inwhich training is provided for members of the JamaicaConstabulary Force. This is in addition to seconding highrankingpolice officers from Scotland Yard to work with theirlocal counterparts in Jamaica.In 2004, the Jamaica Constabulary Force launchedOperation Kingfish as a major anti-crime initiative. Thepurpose of the operation was to dismantle criminalnetworks within Jamaica and to disrupt illegal trafficking ofdrugs and firearms throughout the central and westernCaribbean, with the assistance of international partners. Inthis regard, Operation Kingfish can be considered a partnershipbetween the Jamaica Constabulary Force andinternational police agencies. The operation has targetedgangs, crime bosses, extortion rackets and narcotics trafficking.One major accomplishment of Operation Kingfish hasbeen the dismantling of gangs within the Kingston corporatearea. The initiative has also led to the recovery ofnumerous illegal firearms and equipment used in the illicitdrug trade. The first major drug bust of Operation Kingfishcame in 2004 when American law enforcement agents,assisted by Jamaica and British counterparts, interceptedcocaine valued at Jamaican $4 billion (US$59 million)destined for Jamaica. 21The envisaged changes in the crime fighting initiativesof the Jamaica Constabulary Force are meant to work intandem with other initiatives, such as community-basedpolicing and several social and crime prevention initiativesBox 4.3 Getting the English planning system to engagewith crime prevention• 1994: UK Department of the Environment (DoE) Circular 5/94 16 encouraged planners toconsult with police architectural liaison officers.• 1998: Section 17 of the Crime and Disorder Act placed a statutory duty on local planningauthorities to take account of crime prevention issues in their work.• 2000: The Urban Policy White Paper 17 undertook to review Circular 5/94 and to makecrime prevention a key objective for planning.• 2004: The new national guidance on planning for crime prevention, 18 to replace Circular5/94, was published.• 2005: Planning Policy Statement 1, 19 the government’s statement about the main purposesand responsibilities of the planning system described the primary task of planning as thedelivery of sustainable development and saw safety as one of the key characteristics of asustainable community.implemented by the Ministry of National Security. Theseinitiatives – specifically the Citizens Security and JusticeProgramme (CSJP) and the Community Security Initiative(CSI) operate predominantly within the KingstonMetropolitan Area. The former is funded through a partnershipbetween the Government of Jamaica and theInter-American Development Bank (IDB), and the latter bythe UK Department for International Development (DFID).These programmes were initiated to enhance communitysafety and security. The CSI was established to ensureefficient and effective ‘joined-up action’ between existingprogrammes on improving security and safety, reducingpoverty and strengthening social development. CSJPoperates in 15 violence-prone communities in Kingston andhas been instrumental in providing support to residents anddeveloping legitimate community leadership and structures.Before moving away from the roles of national governments,it is important to note that over and above specificinitiatives, the ongoing work of national governments has ahuge impact on crime and violence in urban areas and howthese problems are tackled. 22 Three examples that relate tothemes introduced in Chapter 3 are given to emphasize thispoint.First, national governments often have a major role toplay in providing policy, legal and financial frameworks forthe work of local authorities, and so the ability of localauthorities to address problems of crime and violence intheir localities can be very heavily influenced by thesefactors. In particular, national governments often encouragelocal authorities and other bodies to do more in particularareas of concern by providing funding and other types ofresources for these purposes. An example of this is the workof the National Crime Prevention Centre in Canada, whichsupports crime prevention activities through three fundingprogrammes: the Crime Prevention Action Fund; thePolicing, Corrections and Communities Fund; and theResearch and Knowledge Development Fund. 23 It should benoted that some governments are active not just in providingfunding internally, but also in providing funding for suchprojects in other countries.Second, national governments often have a major roleto play in relation to military, security and police forces inIn the US,particularly sincethe events of11 September 2001,the federalgovernment hasplayed a leading rolein addressing thethreat of terroristattacks