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216Natural and human-made disastersReconstruction is aperiod when urbanland rights are oftencontested or foughtover by competinginterestsThe basic need forshelter should notbe used as anexcuse for overlyrapid and sociallyunsustainablehousingreconstruction…local economicdevelopment mustbe restarted as soonas possible after adisasterrights, or for the poor or tenants, to lose claims over highvalueland, and for this to be transferred to speculators anddevelopers in the process of reconstruction. If land titles didnot exist before the disaster or have been lost, proxy indicatorsare useful. Where such measures are not possible,alternative means need to be found to ensure that land is notseized outright or that fraudulent claims are not honoured.Following the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004, reconstructionplanning for Aceh (Indonesia) recognized theopportunity to build back better through the provision ofland titles. Land rights were correctly understood to be thecornerstone upon which communities rebuild their homesand livelihoods. They provide a solid, legal foundation forspatial planning, reconstruction and long-term economicdevelopment. Reconstruction has been supported by a multidonorfund of US$28 million. Under the project, some600,000 land parcels are to be titled, many for the first timeever, since less than 20 per cent of the landowners in Acehhad legal titles prior to the tsunami. This developmentalaspect of reconstruction will enable citizens to use their landas collateral for financing homes and businesses. Yet, areview of progress in December 2006 found that while fieldbasedteams had surveyed and adjudicated over 120,000parcels of land, bureaucratic obstacles had resulted in thedisbursement of only 7700 titles. Political will as well astechnical capacity is needed to push forward ambitiousprogrammes for building back better. 94The overall aim of building back better is to use reconstructionas an opportunity to improve the economic,physical and social infrastructure, and to support the assetbases of individuals and households at risk. Reconstructionbecomes a project for improving survivors’ life chances andresilience, not returning them to pre-disaster levels.If reconstruction programmes are to build backbetter, they must take into account the needs of families andbe sensitive to gender, age and culturally specific needs andnorms. The basic need for shelter should not be used as anexcuse for overly rapid and socially unsustainable housingreconstruction. Too often, household livelihoods requiringaccess to external space (such as peri-urban agriculture) arelost when reconstruction planning places excessive emphasison value for money. The misapplication of a developmentapproach was seen in the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004,where efforts were made to strengthen the local livelihoodbase beyond pre-tsunami levels through the widespreadprovision of fishing boats. In some communities, this led to alack of crew and the withdrawal of older male children fromschool.One positive outcome of reconstruction that takesdevelopment goals into account can be the strengthening ofsocial capital, which, in turn, builds resilience. In cities werecivil society is strong, disasters can be opportunities forpushing reforms in urban planning. Popular action in MexicoCity, following the 1985 earthquake, prevented the implementationof city plans to redevelop low-income inner-citytenements for higher-income uses.The International Labour Organization (ILO) CrisisResponse Programme aims to promote social developmentduring reconstruction by helping to save existing jobs andcreating new ones through the reconstruction process. Theresponse package to the 2001 Gujarat earthquake in Indiaincluded a model programme for social and economic reconstructionin ten villages in the Kutch district, funded by theILO and implemented by the Self-Employed Women’sAssociation (SEWA). In response to the earthquakes in ElSalvador and in Peru in 2001, rapid employment impactprojects were launched in partnership with the UNDP. 95 Inorder for households and communities to recover, localeconomic reconstruction must be restarted as soon as possibleafter a disaster. This means developing local marketsthrough cash-for-work schemes, as well as direct support forlocal businesses requiring new premises or tools to restart.Often called ‘foundation markets’, these include consumerand retail services – stalls and shops. 96A final act in the transition to (realigned) developmenthas often been to memorialize a disaster. Memorials canserve to support the healing process and help as a reminderof what can result from inappropriate development.Memorials are especially powerful when they gathertogether data and experiences – perhaps conflicting – of theevent, its causes and consequences.There is great scope for disaster impacts to bereduced if development actors are invited to contribute toplanning reconstruction and rehabilitation. The inclusion ofUN-Habitat in planning reconstruction following the earthquakein Bam (Iran) in 2003 led to a policy of supportingresidents in reconstructing their own homes, including theincorporation of improved seismic resistance in preferenceto the established procedure of placing residents in temporaryshelters. 97CONCLUDING REMARKSThe components of urban risk policy outlined in this chapterare mutually reinforcing. Successful early warning reliesupon risk assessment and strong local communities for informationtransfer and action. Risk assessment feeds directlyinto land-use planning decisions. These and the other activitiesoutlined in this chapter offer opportunities to build backbetter when they are considered in reconstruction, as wellas in preparedness for disaster. They are key pathways formeeting developmental activities with the humanitarianimperatives of relief and reconstruction and point towardsmechanisms for urban disaster risk reduction.Local authorities are the most important actors inurban disaster risk reduction. Local authorities are the levelof government closest to the ground and most directlyanswerable to those at risk. They occupy a strategic institutionalposition, mediating between competing interests inthe city and beyond, and as a conduit of information andresources between communities and external actors. Theirscope for action is, however, often severely limited by lack offinance, human skill shortages, an overburdening of responsibilitiesand political constraints.The most successful partnerships for risk reductioninvariably include local authorities and communities, oftenalso with civil society organizations involved. Such partnershipscan combine the scale of action and resources of
Policy responses to disaster risk217government, on the one hand, with sensitivity for local diversityheld by community-based organizations and thetechnical ability of NGOs, on the other. If urban governancesystems are to take disaster risk reduction seriously, greatersupport for multi-stakeholder planning and project implementationis needed. Reforms in international financialorganizations indicate greater support in the near future forbuilding risk reduction into development planning and for areconsideration of reconstruction financing in order tocreate real opportunities for progressive urban risk reduction.The following key challenges remain; but progress isbeing made:• Urban disaster continues to be predominantly managedin low- and middle-income countries by emergencyresponse and reconstruction, rather than mitigation,preparedness and investing in disaster-resilient development.Changes in international funding regimes canhelp move the risk reduction agenda forward.• A lack of routine and rigorous collection of data on citywidevulnerability and loss contribute to the low policystatus of risk reduction.• Where formal planning capacity is unlikely to meetdemand in the foreseeable future, recent innovations inextending urban planning and building constructioncontrols into the informal sector have met with somesuccess and point the way forward in large and smallcities alike.• Early warning continues to be dominated by technocentricapproaches. Technology is a helpful, but partial,solution to early warning. Investment in piggybackingearly warning systems onto existing social networks canbe a cost-effective and sustainable way forward.• A lack of transparency in reconstruction can lead, forexample, to economic investments being recycled intothe international economy, thus missing an opportunityfor enhancing local safety, security and long-term developmentthrough reconstruction. The rapidity withwhich reconstruction is undertaken should be moreseriously weighed against the potential for more participatoryapproaches that offer downward accountability.NOTES1 ISDR, 2004a.2 For a discussion andexamples of communitycapacity-building throughhazard and vulnerabilitymapping, see ADPC (2004).3 This list builds on ISDR,2004a.4 ISDR, 2004a.5 See UNDP, 2004, andwww.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/research/hotspots/.6 Seismic hazard maps aim toshow the susceptibility of anarea to damage from energywaves travelling through theground caused byearthquakes. They vary incomprehensiveness, fromthose based on geologicalinformation alone to thosethat incorporate soilproperties and buildingresistance.7 In 1997, the Government ofIndia produced a nationalVulnerability Atlas, which hasbeen instrumental in helpingstate and municipal authoritiesstrengthen land-use andconstruction codes andmainstream disaster riskreduction into developmentplanning. Seewww.bmtpc.org/disaster.htm.8 UK Environment Agency,www.environmentagency.gov.uk/maps/.9 See www.scorecard.org/index.tcl.10 Munich Re, 2004.11 McGregor et al, 2006.12 Carreno et al, 2007.13 See www.epa.gov/enviro.14 See www.cmap.nypirg.org.15 See www.hud.gov/emaps.16 For a wealth of theoreticaland practical experience onparticipatory approaches ingeneral, see the InternationalInstitute for Environmentand Development,Participatory Learning andAction Notes, accessed atwww.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/index.html.17 See www.proventionconsortium.org/?pageid=39.18 See www.proventionconsortium.org/files/tools_CRA/ActionAid_PVA_guide.pdf.19 See www.unisdr.org/eng/hfa/hfa.htm.20 For an updated collection ofcase studies and guidancenotes on participatorymethods, seewww.?proventionconsortium.org/?pageid=43.21 Pelling, forthcoming.22 ADPC, 2005.23 Peacock et al, 2005.24 Greening et al, 1996.25 Taipei Times, 2006.26 Jeffrey, 2000.27 Cross, 2001.28 Enarson and Morrow, 1997.29 See http://sspindia.org.30 Wisner et al, 2004.31 Asian Urban DisasterMitigation Programme(undated).32 See www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/un/udhr.html.33 Wisner, 2001.34 See www.dfid.gov.uk/news/files/disaster-risk-reductionfaqs.asp.35 See www.unisdr.org/eng/hfa/docs/HFA-brochure-English.pdf.36 Pelling, 2003.37 ActionAid, 2006.38 Pelling, 2003.39 ISDR, 2004a.40 Hedley et al, 2002.41 ISDR, 2005b.42 ISDR, 2004a43 These plans were alsosupported by the SwissDevelopment CooperationAgency and the NicaraguanInstitute for MunicipalDevelopment andimplemented in Dipilto,Mozonte, Ocotal, CiudadDarío, San Isidroand Sébaco. Seewww.sosnicaragua.gob.ni.44 UN-Habitat, 2006a.45 UN-Habitat, 2006a.46 See Chapter 12 for a moredetailed discussion ofchallenges and good practiceguidelines for re-housing.47 Asian Urban DisasterMitigation Programme, 2001.48 See www.info-turk.be.49 Pelling et al, 2002.50 ISDR, 2004a.51 See www.proventionconsortium.org/.52 World Bank IndependentEvaluation Group, 2006.53 Around US$6000.54 See www.eeri.org/.55 See www.iaee.or.jp/.56 See www.wssi.org/.57 See Box 8.2 andwww.geohaz.org/project/gesi/GesiOver.htm.58 See www-megacities.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/.59 ISDR, 2004a.60 Ibid.61 Sharma, 2001.62 See www.unisdr.org/wcdr/thematic-sessions/presentations/session4-8/buckle.pdf.63 Robert et al, 2003.64 Ibid.65 See www.paho.org/english/PED/publication_eng.htm.66 See www.unisdr.org/wcdr/thematic-sessions/presentations/session5-1/fsss-mr-wisner.pdf.67 Known as the HemisphericAction Plan for VulnerabilityReduction in the EducationSector to Socio-NaturalDisasters (orEDUPLANhemisférico).68 International Federation ofthe Red Cross and RedCrescent Societies,www.ifrc.org/Docs/pubs/?disasters/reduction/canada-case-en.pdf.69 ISDR, 2006a.70 Ibid.71 See Box 7.3.72 See http://ioc.unesco.org/iocweb/disasterMitigation.php.73 ISDR, 2004b.74 ISDR, 2006b.75 BBC News, 2003.76 WMO, 2002.77 For more detail on theCuban risk reductionsystem, see Box 8.15.78 Wisner et al, 2005.79 For a full discussion of theinstitutional barriers todisaster risk reduction, seeDFID, 2005.80 ISDR, 2004a.81 UNDP, 2003.82 DFID, 2006.83 Pelling et al, 2002.84 See www.bisanet.org/bism/2004/getting_smart.html.85 AIDMI, 2006.86 Rawal et al, 2006.87 Ibid; Christoplos, 2006;Oxfam International, 2005b.88 Pelling, 2003.89 Fordham, 2006.90 Fordham, 2003.91 Fordham, 2006.92 Plan International, 2005.93 World Bank, 2005.94 Breteche and Steer, 2006.95 Calvi-Parisetti and Kiniger-Passigli, 2002.96 Billing, 2006.97 DFID, 2005.
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ENHANCING URBAN SAFETYAND SECURITY
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First published by Earthscan in the
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INTRODUCTIONEnhancing Urban Safety
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe preparation of
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xEnhancing Urban Safety and Securit
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xiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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xivEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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xviEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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xviiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Sec
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LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES ANDTABLESFIG
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xxiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xxivEnhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xxviEnhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xxviiiEnhancing Urban Safety and Se
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xxxEnhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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4Understanding Urban Safety and Sec
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1CHAPTERCURRENT THREATS TO URBANSAF
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Current threats to urban safety and
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2CHAPTERVULNERABILITY, RISK ANDRESI
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46Urban crime and violenceBox II.1
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48Urban crime and violenceit has mu
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50Urban crime and violenceFormal an
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52Urban crime and violenceContact c
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54Urban crime and violencePer 100,0
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56Urban crime and violenceBurglary
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58Urban crime and violencePercentag
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60Urban crime and violenceFigure 3.
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62Urban crime and violenceTable 3.3
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64Urban crime and violenceYouth gan
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68Urban crime and violenceType of v
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70Urban crime and violenceFrom a pl
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72Urban crime and violenceOne viole
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74Urban crime and violenceHigh homi
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76Urban crime and violenceAbused ch
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78Urban crime and violenceGenerally
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82Urban crime and violenceporate cr
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4CHAPTERURBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:PO
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86Urban crime and violenceUN-Habita
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88Urban crime and violenceBox 4.2 T
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90Urban crime and violenceBox 4.4 T
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92Urban crime and violenceLegislati
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94Urban crime and violenceabove wha
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96Urban crime and violenceCampaigns
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98Urban crime and violenceAvailable
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100Urban crime and violenceBox 4.7
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102Urban crime and violenceIn some
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104Urban crime and violenceInitiati
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106Urban crime and violenceThe most
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108Urban crime and violenceVandersc
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112Security of tenureBox III.1 Secu
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5CHAPTERSECURITY OF TENURE:CONDITIO
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116Security of tenureTable 5.1A gen
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118Security of tenureFully legalDeg
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120Security of tenureBox 5.4 Securi
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122Security of tenureUrban tenurein
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124Security of tenureAt least 2 mil
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126Security of tenureMarket-basedev
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128Security of tenureBox 5.11 Urban
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130Security of tenureOperationMuram
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132Security of tenureControl of lan
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134Security of tenureBox 5.18 Secur
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136Security of tenureNOTES1 Habitat
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138Security of tenureBox 6.1 The Mi
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140Security of tenureIt would be fo
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142Security of tenureBox 6.7 Land t
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144Security of tenureBox 6.10 What
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146Security of tenureBox 6.12 Evict
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148Security of tenureBox 6.15 Const
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150Security of tenureBox 6.18 Viola
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152Security of tenureThe GlobalCamp
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154Security of tenureBox 6.24 Land-
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156Security of tenureThe state is o
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158Security of tenureHousing rights
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Over the last three decades, natura
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266Towards safer and more secure ci
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276Enhancing Urban Safety and Secur
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12CHAPTERMITIGATING THE IMPACTS OFD
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304Summary of case studiesSince its
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306Summary of case studies• The e
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308Summary of case studiestions wit
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310Summary of case studiesenvironme
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312Summary of case studiesothers. O
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314Summary of case studiespurposes.
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316Summary of case studiesThese eff
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318Summary of case studiesdevelopme
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320Summary of case studiestion exer
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322Summary of case studiesHousing r
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324Summary of case studiesProlonged
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326Summary of case studiesmomentum
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330Statistical annexIslands, Micron
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332Statistical annexNOMENCLATURE AN
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334Statistical annexPopulation, urb
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336Statistical annexSOURCES OF DATA
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410TABLE C.7continuedEnhancing Urba
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INDEXACHR (Asian Coalition for Hous
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Index435security of tenure 134confl
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Index437domestic abuse see intimate
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Index439hazard management 169hazard
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Index441Kosovo, security of tenure
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Index443participation 38, 296-299pa
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Index445individual 34-35municipal f
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Index447gun ownership 78Homeless Pe
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