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xxxEnhancing Urban Safety and SecuritySecurity of tenure is not necessarily related to specifictenure types. Tenure security is also related to a number ofother cultural, social, political and economic factors andprocesses. A whole range of tenure types may thus offersecurity of tenure to urban dwellers. Even residents withtitle deeds living on freehold land may be evicted by thestate in legitimate (and sometimes less legitimate) cases ofexpropriation or compulsory acquisition for the ‘commongood’.As noted above, evictions are most prevalent in areaswith the worst housing conditions. Furthermore, whenevictions do occur, it is always the poor who are evicted.Furthermore, women, children, ethnic and other minorities,and other vulnerable and disadvantaged groups are mostnegatively affected by evictions. Invariably, evictionsincrease, rather than reduce, the problems they were aimedat ‘solving’.Just as particular groups are more exposed to tenureinsecurity, particular events are also major factors affectingtenure security. Natural and human-made disasters, as wellas armed conflict and civil strife, are major factors threateningthe security of tenure of a large number of people everyyear. The groups most vulnerable to tenure insecurity in theaftermath of such events are, again, the poor, women,children, ethnic and other minorities, and other vulnerableand disadvantaged groups.Lack of security of tenure is not only a problem initself. It is part of a vicious cycle since it is often accompaniedby poor or deteriorating dwellings and infrastructure,which, in turn, may lead to increased exposure to crime andviolence, as well as to natural and human-made disasters.Key messagesWhen evictions are being considered, it is essential that allalternatives to evictions are considered – in collaborationwith the potential evictees themselves – before an evictiontakes place. When evictions are unavoidable (e.g. in the caseof non-payment of rent), such evictions should only becarried out in accordance with the law, and such evictionsshould never result in individuals being rendered homelessor vulnerable to the violation of other human rights. Underno circumstance should evictions be undertaken withoutacceptable relocation sites being identified in close cooperationwith the evictees.Interventions addressing the issue of security oftenure should always ensure that the requirements of allgroups are adequately addressed. In essence, it is essentialto prevent any detrimental discrimination with respect tohousing, land and property. For example, land titles shouldbe issued equally to both men and women. Similarly, slumupgrading programmes should consult with and consider theneeds of both ‘owners’, tenants and sub-tenants.When developing housing and urban policies, it isessential that governments adopt a framework based onhousing, land and property rights, as elaborated in internationallaw. Such a framework should take cognisance of thefact that there is a whole range of tenure types which mayoffer increased security of tenure to the urban poor. In somecases, perceived security of tenure may even be improvedsimply through the provision of basic services and infrastructure.Perhaps the most important component of improvingthe security of tenure in informal settlements and slums isthat governments at all levels should accept the residents ofsuch settlements as equal citizens, with the same rights andresponsibilities as other urban dwellers.It is essential that states fulfil their obligations underinternational law with respect to the collection and disseminationof information regarding the scale and scope oftenure insecurity, forced evictions and homelessness.Without the timely collection of such data, it is, in effect,impossible for governments to verify whether they arecontributing effectively to the progressive realization of theright to adequate housing according to their obligations asdefined in the ICESCR.Under international law, forced evictions are regardedas prima facie violations of human rights. Despite this, thevast majority of forced evictions carried out in the world arein breach of international law. A global moratorium on forcedevictions could be an effective first step towards addressingthis recurrent violation of human rights.Application of international criminal law to violationsof housing, land and property rights is also necessary. If suchrights are to be taken seriously, there should be strong legalgrounds on which to discourage the impunity almost invariablyenjoyed by violators of these rights. All of those whoadvocate ethnic cleansing, those who sanction violent andillegal forced evictions, those who call for laws and policiesthat clearly result in homelessness, or those who fail to endsystematic discrimination against women in the land andhousing sphere – and all of those promoting such violations –should be held accountable.NATURAL AND HUMAN-MADE DISASTERSKey findingsBetween 1974 and 2003, 6367 natural disasters occurredglobally, causing the death of 2 million people and affecting5.1 billion people. A total of 182 million people were madehomeless, while reported economic damage amounted toUS$1.38 trillion. Since 1975, the number of natural disastersrecorded globally has increased dramatically (fourfold),especially in Africa. An even higher tenfold increase in theincidence of human-made disasters has been observedbetween 1976 and 2000. Between 2000 and 2005, averagemortality from human-made disasters was lower (30 perevent) than deaths caused by natural disasters (225 perevent). A total of 98 per cent of the 211 million peopleaffected by natural disasters annually from 1991 to 2000were in developing countries.The catastrophic impact of disasters on individuals hasbeen illustrated in recent years by the toll of death (220,000people) and homelessness (1.5 million) from the IndianOcean Tsunami of December 2004 and the Pakistan earthquakeof October 2005, which killed 86,000 people and leftmillions homeless. Moreover, losses during disaster and