Download the file - United Nations Rule of Law

40Understanding Urban Safety and SecurityThe first challengeof planning toimprove urbansafety and securityis the assembly ofinformation tocorrectly frame theproblemThe secondchallenge ofplanning … is in theformulation ofobjectivesA third challenge isthe formulation andenforcement ofnorms and codes ofbehaviourable, safe and aesthetically pleasing built environment. It islimited to the detailed physical structure and arrangement ofbuildings and other types of physical development withinspace. This includes the use of building codes, for exampleto mandate earthquake-proof or flood-proof buildings. Urbandesign is narrower than urban planning, and is often seen aspart of the latter. While subsequent chapters of this reportpresent problem-oriented planning solutions, this sectionwill highlight some of the approaches deserving consideration.The first challenge of planning to improve urbansafety and security is the assembly of information tocorrectly frame the problem. In the area of crime andviolence, this calls for increased efforts, mostly but notentirely in developing countries, to collect reliable data oncrime and violence. This varies tremendously acrosscountries and even cities within countries; but better informationallows a clearer and more detailed assessment ofthreats, risks and vulnerabilities. A similar exercise isrequired to reduce the problem of insecurity of tenure.Surveys of land occupancy and housing in cities could helpto identify the scale of the tenure problem and on whattypes of land it is most prevalent. The assembly of data onsettlement patterns should be related to processes of spatialexpansion, not simply demographic growth. 67 In the field ofdisaster preparedness, there exists a body of good practice inmapping hazards and developing risk profiles, as shown inthe cases of hazard mapping and risk assessment in India,described in Chapter 8. Risk assessments must includecollection and analysis of multiple types of information andaddress complex issues of multiple hazards, cumulative risk,and primary, secondary and tertiary consequences (seeChapter 8).The second challenge of planning in relation to urbansafety and security is in the formulation of objectives. In thefield of crime and violence, a major issue is whether substantialresources can be devoted to the prevention of crime andviolence and, if so, how? Cities have historically vacillatedbetween sending strong signals to discourage potentialperpetrators of crimes through heavy sentences and punishmentsfor crime and more socially oriented ‘softer’approaches, including community policing and expandingcivil society involvement. A parallel example in the tenurefield is whether governments will recognize the impressivelist of human rights that have been declared by the internationalcommunity and, therefore, desist from bulldozinghomes and neighbourhoods in the name of land-use andzoning regulations. With respect to disasters, a number ofNOTESthematic areas for urban planning (including urban design)have been identified in Chapter 8: mapping hazard, vulnerabilityand risk; strengthening local capacity for resilience;land-use management and urban planning; building codes,regulation and disaster-resistant construction; planning toprotect critical infrastructure and services; early warning;financing urban risk management; disaster response andrecovery.A third challenge is the formulation and enforcementof norms and codes of behaviour. It is generally understoodthat prevention of crime and violence requires publiclyestablished sentences and penalties for crimes committed.This issue, however, is heavily affected by the concept ofmitigating circumstances that lead judges to either increaseor decrease sentences. Norms have gradually becomecodified regarding land tenure issues; but these arrangementscan be so complicated that simply understandingthem is far beyond the educational level of the poor peoplemost affected by them. Codes with regard to buildingconstruction or land use to avoid natural disasters are moreeasily understood; but even here, the issues of enforcementto reduce risk are complicated in local environments. Thisaffects the levels of preparedness that are possible in differentenvironments – for example, using people-centredpreparedness systems or focusing more on local governmentprocedures. 68Both the processes of urban policy, as broadly defined,and planning are integral parts of the governance process. Asthe previous section on pathways to resilience suggests, eachof the different components of the governance process hasimportant roles to play: institutions and policy, the juridicalframework of international law, and civil society and culture.Governance is more than government, whether institutionsor forms of public authority: it is an all-encompassing processby which official and non-official actors contribute tomanagement of conflict, establishment of norms, the protectionof the common interest, and the pursuit of the commonwelfare.During the 21st century, urban growth has contributedto increasing concentrations of hazards and risk forgrowing urban populations. While much of the responsibilityto reduce these risks is at the urban and national level, theinternational community has also accepted some responsibilitiesfor specific aspects of these challenges. Part I of thisGlobal Report has framed the problem. Subsequent parts willexamine each of the challenges to urban safety and securityin greater depth and suggest positive approaches for reducingthese risks as cities continue to grow.1 Alwang et al, 2001; Bankoffet al, 2004.2 Ibid.3 Alwang et al, 2001, p2.4 Holzman and Jorgensen,2000.5 Alwang et al, 2001, p10;Pelling, 2003.6 Alwang et al, 2001, p4.7 Sharma et al, 2000;Devereux, 1999; Moser,1998.8 Adger, 1999.9 Alwang et al, 2001, p5.10 Bankoff et al, 2004.11 Stephens et al, 1994.12 Pettis, 2003.13 Stiglitz, 2002.14 See UN-Habitat, 2005c.15 Morley, 1998.16 Galster, 1999.17 Cohen et al, 1996.18 Hansen, 2006.19 Kerr, 2006.20 See Chapter 12.21 Davis, 2006b.22 See, for example, Diamond,2005.23 See, for example, articles inDNA, The Times of India,Indian Express and HindustanTimes during July 2005, andStecko and Barber, 2007.24 See Chapter 3.25 See Angel et al (2005) foran excellent analysis explainingthe differences in theperformance of the housingsector across countries.26 Angel et al, 2005.27 United Nations, 2001a.28 See Chapter 3.29 See Thompson, 2007.30 DFID, 2005; also see Box12.7 in this report.31 See Chege et al, 2007.32 Moser, 1996.33 See Chapter 3.