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106Urban crime and violenceThe most importantpolicy trend… hasbeen the move awayfrom the idea thatcrime preventionand tacklingviolence are essentiallymatters for thepolice and thecriminal justicesystem, and towardsthe idea that theseare complexphenomena whichrequire broad-basedresponsesprogramme, supported by a broad strategy and based on anunderstanding of the local context. Partnerships offer avehicle for undertaking tasks of this nature and for agreeingon the outcomes of these processes, including tapping intothe knowledge and understanding of partners at the appropriatetimes. These reasons show why both as a mechanismand as a process, partnerships have become so common inthis field.There are, however, some important cautionarywords that are necessary, not least because partnership is inthe same class as community when it comes to concepts thatare seen in some quarters as being the equivalent of magicdust. In reality, the theoretical virtues of the partnershipapproach will only materialize if the partnership works effectively,which, among other things, requires a significantcommitment of resources by partners. Partnerships can alsobe exclusive, as well as inclusive: who is not there can be assignificant in determining outcomes as who is there, and canoften be a controversial issue in a locality. Indeed, achievinga proper level of representation around the partnership tablecan be a real challenge in its own right, not least becausethere may well be very different views about what ‘proper’means in relation to particular sectors or organizations.The workings of partnerships can also be difficult tounderstand from the outside, especially if their communicationprocesses are not very effective and their proceduresare complex, bureaucratic and difficult for potential participantsto follow. Partnerships run the risk of being too cosy inthe sense that a relatively small group of people can agreethings among themselves without taking account of muchwider community views and wishes. Partnerships also needto have an action focus so that they avoid the danger of driftinginto becoming mere talking shops that actually do verylittle. Finally, it is important that a sensible balance is struckbetween the importance of the leadership role and theabsence of the domination that sometimes comes with this.Effective partnerships need good leadership; but partnershipsshould never become merely a rubber stamp for theviews of whoever is in the leading role. These are just someof the dangers that exist in relation to partnerships and,indeed, some of the things that some critics have said aboutthem. 89 There are many examples of partnerships of all kinds,some of which are good and some of which are not.However, the potential advantages of partnership are veryreal. Indeed, it is difficult to think of other mechanisms thathave the same potential. But it is equally clear that partnershipis not a magic formula. It is something that has to beworked at in particular circumstances.CONCLUDING REMARKSInevitably, a discussion of emerging policy trends across asdiverse a set of policy responses to crime and violence asreviewed in this chapter involves being selective.Nevertheless, there do appear to be some significant policytrends that are visible. This section discusses what may bethe most notable.The most important policy trend in the field over thepast two decades or so has been the move away from theidea that crime prevention and tackling violence are essentiallymatters for the police and the criminal justice system,and towards the idea that these are complex phenomenawhich require broad-based responses. The emergence ofurban crime prevention as a specific concern of urban policyand urban actors is an indication of such shift. As a result,the range of policy responses described in this chapter hasbecome more commonplace, with, to some extent, each ofthem seeing significant development as the search forsolutions has broadened. This does not imply that the rolesof the police and the criminal justice system have becomeunimportant, or that developments have been mainly inother areas rather than in these. Instead, the historicreliance on a limited number of areas has been replaced by amore broad-based range of responses that recognize theneed to find other ways of addressing crime and violence.Four of these areas, in particular, seem to have attractedinterest, although the nature and the intensity of this havevaried across the world.First is the idea that through the manipulation of thephysical environment it is possible to reduce the opportunityfor certain kinds of crimes to be committed. This recognizesthe point made in Chapter 3 that the physical environmentposes risks of crime and violence and that, as a consequence,the where of crime is an important issue which, untilrecently, was often neglected. There is now an understandingthat it is possible to make a difference to the opportunityfor crimes such as burglary to be committed by designchoices, and that it is possible to make a difference topeople’s feelings about the safety of the environment inwhich they move around through similar processes. 90 Inparticular, much attention has been paid to the residentialenvironment, 91 which is important since housing is by farthe most extensive urban land use. This interest has beenextended in some areas to an exploration of the role of theplanning system through its control of development inaddressing these aspects of crime prevention. 92The second of the policy responses is the idea thatapproaches need to be more community based. The broadreasons for this have been discussed. It seems to be the casethat this means different things in different parts of theworld, and it is an area of considerable controversy sincemany practices that are claimed as being community basedwould not be in other areas. There is still considerable scopefor further development of this area and for the development,in particular, of a better understanding of whatcommunity involvement means. Interestingly, as is demonstratedin the Hong Kong case study, 93 these issues have alsoaffected discussions about appropriate policing strategies,with the process of moving in the direction of communitypolicing taking place over a period of 40 years and beinginfluenced by the major change in 1997 when Hong Kongwas returned to China.The third area relates to the focus on particulargroups in society that are either vulnerable to, or perpetratorsof, most crimes. This has been a key feature of manyUN-Habitat Safer Cities programmes, where the focus hasbeen on women at risk of violence and on young people,