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Policy responses to disaster risk203formation of a Disaster Management Council, guidelines forbuilding construction in disaster-prone areas and a DisasterManagement and Mitigation Plan for Ratnapura. 31Legal approachesThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights already supportsthe right to personal security and a basic standard of livingduring periods of unforeseen livelihood disruption. 32 Thehuman rights agenda offers a potentially powerful tool forlocal actors to argue for increased pre-disaster investmentand post-disaster compensation. It offers a moral imperativethat could mobilize local political will. 33 Rights-basedapproaches that seek to justify investment in prevention areincreasingly being supported by economic analysis, whichshows the financial savings to be made by investing in riskreduction before a disaster, compared to the costs of managingdisasters through relief and reconstruction. The UKDepartment for International Development (DFID) estimatesthat for every US$1 invested in disaster risk reduction,between US$2 and $4 are returned in terms of avoided orreduced disaster impacts. 34The failure of the international community to set alegally binding international treaty on disaster risk reductionin the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015, 35 and theabsence of disaster risk targets in the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs), however, limits the internationalpressure that can be used to support local actors atrisk.Nationally, an increasing number of governments areputting in place disaster risk reduction legislation. Whilesuch legislation often does not provide targets for action, itdoes establish responsible agencies for risk reduction,typically in local and regional government. Where legalsystems are robust, legislation has proven a strong weapon tostrengthen communities at risk from technological andindustrial hazards, and underpins the Environmental JusticeMovement. Court action taken by the survivors of thePayatas (Manila) rubbish mountain landslide in 2000 is anexample. Some 300 people were killed in this event. Inpartnership with civil rights lawyers, survivors filed a US$20million legal claim against the city government for compensatoryand moral damages based on the assertion that cityauthorities were responsible for the Payatas dumpsite. Thatlow-income survivors of an urban disaster could take legalaction indicates the strength of community capacity inPayatas, and also a supporting infrastructure of civil rightslawyers, basic conditions not found in every city andespecially lacking in smaller urban settlements. 36Where the law allows it, and where culpability can beproven, group actions brought by survivors of toxic releasesagainst companies or the state can amount to significantsums and act as a deterrent on other companies. In SouthAfrica, a strong legal system provides for disaster risk reductionto be a shared responsibility between national, regionaland municipal governments and, in so doing, provides forcollective legal action against state agencies found to becomplicit in the generation of disaster risk (see Box 8.8).Box 8.7 Women lead contributions to local disaster riskreduction in Latin AmericaThe Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) has long worked with women and men tobuild local capacities for risk awareness and reduction. In a review of the contribution made bywomen to local resilience, it was concluded that, while women are severely affected by naturaldisasters, disasters often provide women with an opportunity to challenge and change theirstatus in society.In many (if not most) cases, women are more effective than men at mobilizing thecommunity to respond to disasters. They form groups and networks of social actors who workto meet the most pressing needs of the community. This kind of community organizing hasproven essential in disaster preparedness and mitigation. A review of PAHO field notes illustratesthe contribution of women towards disaster risk reduction:• Following Hurricane Mitch in 1998, women in Guatemala and Honduras were seen buildinghouses, digging wells and ditches, hauling water and building shelters. This shows howwilling women are to take on activities traditionally considered to be ‘men’s work’. Beyondincreasing the efficiency and equity in disaster reconstruction, this kind of experience canalso help in changing society’s conceptions of women’s capabilities.• After the 1985 earthquake in Mexico City, low-income women working in factories organizedthemselves into the ‘19 of September Garment Workers’ Union’, which wasrecognized by the Mexican government and proved instrumental in lobbying for the recoveryof women’s employment.• Following Hurricane Joan in 1988, women in Mulukutú (Nicaragua) organized to developplans for disaster preparedness that included all the members of a household. Ten yearslater, Mulukutú was better prepared for Hurricane Mitch and it recovered more quicklythan other similarly affected communities.Source: PAHO (undated)Economic approachesMicrofinance has a great potential to build communityresilience to disasters. The extension of small loans throughmicro-credit enhances the incomes and assets of urbanhouseholds and communities, thereby reducing theirpoverty. In turn, this helps to reduce vulnerability to disastersand develops greater coping capacity. Post-disaster loansand micro-insurance can help poor urban householdsrecover more quickly. Yet, it is only recently that microcreditand micro-insurance have been applied for buildingcommunity resilience to disaster risk.To date, microfinance institutions have been involvedmostly with post-disaster recovery activities. There is a need,however, for microfinance to be perceived as a potential toolto better prepare communities before natural hazards strike.In particular, the scope for micro-insurance to act as anaffordable mechanism for extending risk-sharing into lowincomecommunities has recently received much attention.Challenges remain for the role of microfinance instrengthening local resilience against disasters. Thecomplexity of livelihoods and social life in urban areas hasdelayed the development of microfinance schemes,compared to some rural contexts. Disasters can also destroythe very assets in which individuals have invested microcreditloans, leading to debt as well as loss of assets.Following a disaster, if micro-credit is available, there is adanger that survivors will overextend their ability to repayloans in efforts to re-establish livelihoods. Pre-disaster… an increasingnumber ofgovernments areputting in placedisaster risk reductionlegislation