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Introduction237legislative, administrative, budgetary, judicial and othermeasures to ensure that all people have access to adequatehousing. So, while states are not necessarily required tobuild homes for the entire population, they are obliged totake a whole range of steps, both positive and negative innature, grounded in human rights law, which are designed toensure the full realization of all human rights, including theright to adequate housing.Chapter 11 provides a whole range of specific recommendationson elements to consider when developinghousing and urban policies, taking into account the principlesof HLP rights. These include, among other issues, stepsto prevent discrimination with respect to housing; to ceasethe practice of forced evictions; to introduce faster and moreaffordable measures for conferring security of tenure topeople living in informal settlements and slum areas; and toensure that the obligations of states under international laware incorporated within national legislation. As noted above,in order for national (as well as local) governments to fulfiltheir obligations with respect to international law, and inorder to plan for improving tenure security for all, there is apressing need for better monitoring and better data onsecurity of tenure and forced evictions.It is important to note that security is less aboutwhich type of tenure an individual community, household orindividual enjoys, but rather about the security enjoyed.Even freehold land can be expropriated by the state underthe pretext of being ‘for the common good’. As noted inChapters 5 and 6, there is a whole range of tenure optionsthat may (or may not) provide security of tenure. Thus, livingin an informal settlement or in a residential area governed bycustomary or communal law does not inherently mean that aperson, household or community will be forcibly evictedfrom their homes and lands. It has to be recognized thatthere are no universal solutions to the provision of securityof tenure and that challenges in this regard tend to be solvedin different ways in different locations. Depending uponcircumstances, there are a number of acceptable forms ofsecure tenure, and the merits of innovative policies are clear.The importance of the urban or local level lies in the fact thatevictions are most frequently carried out by local authoritiesor other local actors. It is thus essential that local authorities,in their development strategies and planning, acknowledgethe right to enjoy security of tenure. Likewise, the mostimportant actors in any effort to prevent evictions are thoseoperating at the local level. As noted above, the report thushighlights the importance of supporting the activities ofNGOs, CBOs and others engaged in enhancing security oftenure and combating forced evictions.The extensive impacts of natural and human-madedisasters on cities and their inhabitants have been elaboratedupon in Part IV of this Global Report. Various actions arecurrently being pursued at the international, national andlocal levels to reduce disaster risk in urban areas. Chapter 12examines key policy areas where future prospects for buildingresilience against natural and human-made disasters incities lie.In view of the increasing numbers of people beingaffected by disasters globally, risk reduction is now identifiedas a significant concern in several international frameworksand agreements. Most fundamental are the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). Although there is no disasterrisk reduction MDG, it is recognized that failure to integratedisaster risk reduction within urban, national and regionaldevelopment policy will undo development gains and thusimpede the achievement of other MDGs. Disaster risk reductionis also highlighted in both international frameworks forurban development (the Habitat Agenda) and disaster riskreduction (the Hyogo Framework). Such international frameworksare important in focusing the attention of multilateraland bilateral donors, as well as international civil societyactors, towards disaster risk reduction. They can also facilitateadvocacy and guide the development of disaster riskreduction strategies at national and city levels. Furthermore,governments require assistance from the internationalcommunity in the form of funding, data and information andtechnical expertise to establish or improve their disaster riskreduction systems. International assistance for disaster riskreduction should not focus primarily on recovery and reconstructionefforts, as has been the case in the past, but also onlonger-term development objectives.Chapter 12 identifies a number of policies that, ifadopted at the national level, can support city-level riskreduction planning and implementation. It is especiallyimportant that disaster risk reduction is mainstreamedwithin national development and poverty reduction policiesand planning. Knowledge of disaster trends and impacts isfundamental in guiding the development of risk reductionpolicies. Governments thus need to improve risk, hazard andvulnerability assessment and monitoring capacity throughincreased investments, with support from the internationalcommunity, where necessary. Technological innovation hasgreatly improved such assessments, although not equally inall countries. Participatory techniques offer a unique opportunityof generating basic data on hazard, vulnerability andloss where this is not available from centralized databases, asis the case in many low-income countries. In addition toinforming policy formulation, assessment data should feedinto national initiatives that aim to build a culture of awarenessand safety through public education and informationprogrammes. The use of education systems to raise awarenessand skills for disaster risk reduction is especiallyeffective in minimizing loss from disasters.Governments should also seek to build andstrengthen national and local early warning systems. Culturaland linguistic diversity or socio-economic inequalities maylead to some people being excluded from early warninginformation and advice on how to respond to disaster.Involving local communities in vulnerability and hazardassessments can facilitate the dissemination of early warningmessages and, thus, enhance local-level preparedness.Indeed, participatory and inclusive strategies that enable thefull participation of relevant local actors should guide riskreduction activities at both national and city levels. Peoplecentredearly warning systems, which bring togethertechnical expertise for identifying approaching hazard withlocal expertise, are invaluable in diffusing early warninginformation and catalysing preventative action. The use of