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50Urban crime and violenceFormal and informalinstitutions playimportant roles inmediating orexacerbating theimpacts of crimeand violenceCrime isfundamentallydefined as anantisocial act thatviolates a law andfor which apunishment can beimposed by thestate or in thestate’s nameglobalization’ 4 – have helped to nurture shadow economiesin many nations and cities. It is ironic, but not unpredictable,that media portrayals of this sector have never stoked thesame level of fear that it has about terrorism, which is farless pervasive and arguably less serious than either commonor organized crime.Since the media is the key vehicle of globalized fears,it also has an important role in the construction of theperceptions of local insecurities, in terms of issues that arehighlighted and the way actors are depicted. Cultures ofviolence do permeate many media reports, and impact onthe way violence against women or police brutality or youthgangs are understood in society. The importance of understandingand considering fear in analysing impacts andresponses to crime and violence has to be acknowledged, asit points to the need to address not only crime and violenceas phenomena, but also the sentiments of fear and insecurityin a broader sense.International legal frameworks and trendsThe discussion in this chapter is also guided by the view thatsafety from crime and violence, including the fear andinsecurity that flow from these disturbing events, are publicgoods and basic human rights, not unlike the right to cleanwater, air and shelter. These principles have been embracedat the international level and are increasingly being acknowledgedby national and local governments, as well as by localcommunity organizations. In concert with this, crime preventionapproaches have gained credibility and momentum, asdemonstrated by the development and reaffirmation of theUnited Nations Economic and Social Council Resolution1995/9 of 24 July 1995, the United Nations Guidelines forCrime Prevention, 5 by the entry into force of the UnitedNations Convention against Transnational Organized Crimeand its three protocols, 6 and by the promulgation of theUnited Nations Anti-Corruption Toolkit as part of the GlobalProgramme Against Corruption, 7 to name but a few of therelatively recent initiatives.Formal and informal institutionsIt is clear that formal and informal institutions play importantroles in mediating or exacerbating the impacts of crimeand violence insomuch as victims and perpetrators areaffected by rules, decisions and programmes that flow frompublic policy, as well as by ‘socially shared rules, usuallyunwritten, that are created, communicated and enforcedoutside of officially sanctioned channels’. 8 In manyinstances, informal institutions trump the policies made byformal institutions, as suggested in the examples from Braziland Russia below.Formal institutional rules are epitomized in a varietyof interventions at all levels across the developed and developingworld and will be discussed in more detail. Theyinclude some recurring themes based upon conditions andtrends in crime and violence, and can encompass social andeconomic, situational and law enforcement interventions, orcombinations of these. For instance, based on what is knownabout the linkages of employment, youthful populations andthe risks of crime, a major strategy of public and privatecrime prevention programmes – from Kenya and Papua NewGuinea to the US – is targeting unemployed urban youths,especially males, by providing training and job opportunities.9 Such programmes are variably effective, given localimplementation strategies; but their desirability is almostuniversally embraced.Informal institutions are cultural norms that are notsanctioned by official programmes or public policy (althoughthey may be influenced by them). For example, while extrajudicialkillings are prohibited by Brazilian law, the police aresometimes encouraged by informal norms, pressures andincentives within the security system to execute suspectedcriminals who might otherwise escape prosecution. In theformer Soviet Union, although not approved by the state, the‘blat’ system was widely used to obtain commodities notprovided by the Soviet command economy. It was a ‘prohibitedbut possible’ means of receiving goods and favours thatwould otherwise not be available. 10There are instances where informal institutions playvital and positive roles, for example in providing mediationmechanisms that resolve conflicts within a communitybefore resorting to the formal justice system, thereforeproviding diversion channels for minor offenders. There areexamples of informal institutions that are supported andsanctioned by public policy, and do contribute to safety andsecurity in neighbourhoods. For example, the Sungusungu ofTanzania are organized groups of people (neighbourhoodwatch) operating with the authority and protection of thegovernment for law enforcement and protection of peopleand property. Sungusungu are legally recognized through thePeoples’ Militia Laws (Miscellaneous Amendment) Act,1989 (No. 9 of 1989). The powers granted to Sungusunguare similar to those vested in police officers of the rank ofPolice Constable 11 . The Sungusungu groups are establishedby the communities and recruit unemployed youth whoreceive militia training and various forms of support from thecommunities and municipalities. The communitiessometimes provide financial support, while the municipalitiesusually provide material support, such as uniforms.There are also instances where distinctions betweenformal and informal institutions blur. This is evident in theviolence in Darfur and Iraq. In these circumstances, it is noteasy to distinguish between formal and informal institutionsthat are perpetrating violent acts against citizens. In otherinstances, where legitimate state force – in the way of therealized protection of law and regulation – is lacking orineffective, criminal enterprises often fill the vacuum, asexemplified by the expansion of the Russian mafia followingthe fall of the Soviet Union and by burgeoning gangs inlawless areas of Latin America’s megacities.Key concepts and termsA crime is fundamentally defined as an antisocial act thatviolates a law and for which a punishment can be imposed bythe state or in the state’s name; the resulting range ofpunishable acts is extraordinary and varies across jurisdic-