Download the file - United Nations Rule of Law

82Urban crime and violenceporate crime prevention and reduction approaches. Some ofthe problems and possibilities of currently used crimeprevention policies and programmes are detailed in Chapter4, while Chapter 10 provides a view of the way forward inthis field.NOTES1 Eck, 1997.2 Moser et al, 2005.3 Walker et al, 2006.4 Thachuk, 2001.5 United Nations, 2002,Guidelines for CrimePrevention, 2002, and 11thUnited Nations Congress onCrime Prevention andCriminal Justice, Bangkok,18–25 April 2005.6 UNODC (2000)‘Convention against transnationalorganized crime’,General AssemblyResolution 55/25.7 UNODC, 2004.8 Helmke and Levitsky, 2004.9 International LabourOrganization (ILO), PapuaNew Guinea Red CrossSociety and the US NationalCrime Prevention Council.10 The blat system relies on thecomplex exchange ofpersonal favours within thecontext of personalnetworks; see Butler andPurchase, 2004.11 Hampton, 1982.12 Schneider and Kitchen, 2007;UNODC, 2005b; Moser andMcIlwaine, 2004; Levitt,2004; ODPM (Office of theDeputy Prime Minister),2004; Felson, 2002;Schneider and Kitchen, 2002;Monkkonen, 2001b; Clarke,1997; Sherman et al, 1997;Clarke and Felson, 1993;Barr and Pease, 1990;Brantingham andBrantingham, 1991;Newman, 1973; Jacobs, 1961;Burgess and McKenzie, 1925.13 WHO, 2002, p5.14 Moser, 2004.15 Ibid; Eversole et al, 2004.16 Galtung, 1969, p171.17 These include theft of car,theft from car, theft ofmotorcycle, theft of bicycle,burglary, attempted burglary,robbery, theft of personalproperty, sexual offences,sexual incidents againstwomen, and assault/threat.Victims cannot, of course,report their own homicides,so this important index isnot part of the InternationalCrime Victimization Survey(ICVS).18 Mboya, 2002. This generaltypology is also used by theUS National CrimeVictimization Survey: seewww.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvict.htm#ncvs.19 Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2003.20 Ibid.21 Shaw et al, 2003.22 Ibid.23 Ibid.24 Aggregated from datacompiled by Barclay et al,2003.25 World Fact Book, 2006.26 Counts and rates increased:(38 countries, 73 per cent:Albania, Argentina, Austria,Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium,Canada, Chile, Croatia,Cyprus, Czech Republic,Denmark, Finland, Germany,Iceland, Italy, Japan, Lithuania,Luxembourg, Maldives,Malta, Morocco, TheNetherlands, NorthernIreland, Oman, Peru, thePhilippines, Poland, SaudiArabia, Scotland, Slovakia,Slovenia, South Africa,Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia,the UK, Uruguay).Counts and ratesdecreased: (10 countries, 19per cent: Bolivia, Costa Rica,El Salvador, Hungary, Kuwait,Latvia, Moldova, Myanmar,Nepal, Panama).Counts increased, ratesdecreased: (4 countries, 8 percent: Canada, Mexico,Portugal, US).Adapted fromUNODC, 2005a, Table 2.1.27 UNODC, 2005a.28 See the Urban IndicatorsGuidelines, UN-Habitat,2004a. The definition is usedby the United NationsStatistics Division.29 While homicides are violentcrimes, they are not includedin ICVS reports since theseare self-reported incidents.While definitions of whatconstitutes a homicide differ(e.g. all murders arehomicides, but not allhomicides are consideredmurders), homicide ratesare, nevertheless, used as theinternational comparativestandard for violent crime.30 WHO, 2002.31 Collier and Hoeffler, 2004,cited in UNODC, 2005b.32 UN-Habitat, 2006c.33 Briceno-Leon, 1999.34 See Lemard and Hemenway,2006.35 Hagedorn and Rauch, 2004.36 Morbidity and MortalityWeekly Report, 2004.37 US Department of Justice,2006.38 Institute for Security Studies,2002.39 UNDOC, 2005b.40 Moser and Holland, 1997b.41 Alemika and Chukwuma,2005.42 Shaw et al, 2003.43 Ibid.44 Ibid.45 van Ness, 2005, based onICVS data.46 del Frate, 2003.47 Barclay et al, 2003.48 UNODC, 2005b.49 WHO, 2005.50 Kershaw et al, 2001.51 Coker et al, 2002.52 WHO, 2005.53 Ibid; Koenig et al, 2006.54 Mboup and Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, 2005.55 Jejeebhoy and Cook, 1997;Rao, 1997.56 UN Secretary General’sStudy on Violence againstChildren, 2006.57 UNICEF, 2006.58 Ibid.59 Ibid.60 WHO, 2005.61 Currie and Tekin, 2006;WHO, 2002.62 UNICEF, 2006.63 Consortium for StreetChildren, 2003.64 Willemot, 2006.65 Volunteer Brazil, undated,and Casa Alianza UK,undated.66 UNICEF, 2006.67 Anti-Corruption, undated;Anti-Corruption Gatewayfor Europe and Eurasia,undated; TransparencyInternational, undated.68 UNODC, 2004.69 Transparency International,2005b.70 Ibid.71 van Dijk and vanVollenhoven, 2006, p.11.72 Shorter and Onyancha,1999.73 Kenya Government PositionPaper, August 2001.74 Buscaglia and van Dijk, 2003.75 Transparency International,2005a.76 UNODC, 2005b, p20.77 UNODC, 2000.78 Thachuk, 2001.79 van Dijk and vanVollenhoven, 2006.80 Ibid, p3.81 Ibid, p6.82 See UNODC, 2006a, formaps of seizure and traffickingroutes foramphetamine-type stimulants(ATS) (such asmethamphetamine andamphetamine), ecstasy,heroin and other opiates,and cocaine.83 Stohl, 2005.84 Cukier and Seidel, 2005.85 Small Arms Survey, 2002.86 See International ActionNetwork on Small Arms,undated a.87 The case of Rio de Janeiro,prepared for this GlobalReport by Zaluar, 2007.88 Gimode, 2001.89 Okwebah and Wabala, 2007.90 Ibid.91 UNDP, 2006a; US StateDepartment, 2001.92 UNODC, 2006b, p7.93 Office on Violence againstWomen, 2000; Schauer andWheaton, 2006.94 Protocol to Prevent,Suppress and PunishTrafficking in Persons,Especially Women andChildren, 2003.95 Schauer and Wheaton,2006.96 BBC News, 2001; La Oferta,2006.97 UNODC, 2005b.98 Sofia Echo.com, 17 May2006. Note that Bulgaria wasadmitted to the EU on 1January 2007.99 IOM (undated).100 Schauer and Wheaton,2006.101 Cited in UNODC, 2006b,p61.102 Seewww.humantrafficking.org.103 Howell and Decker, 1999.104 Rodgers, 1999.105 Zaluar 1997, cited inRodgers, 1999.106 Moser et al, 2005.107 Winton, 2004.108 Hagedorn, 2005.109 Ibid, p162.110 Ibid, p161.111 Krug et al, 2002.112 Goldstein, 2004.113 Beall, 2006, p106.114 Glaeser and Shapiro, 2002.115 Beall, 2006.116 BBC News, 2006b.117 Beall, 2006, p111.118 Barker, 2003, cited in Beall,2006.119 Litman, 2005.120 National CounterterrorismCenter, 2006; FBI, 2004.121 Moser, 2004.122 HRW (undated a).123 Ibid.124 WHO, 2005.125 Broadhurst et al, 2007.126 Haines and Wood, 2002.127 Ibid.128 Lemard and Hemenway,2006.129 WHO, 2002.130 Gartner, 1990; Unnithan andWhitt, 1992; Hsieh and Pugh,1993; Fajnzylber et al, 2002.131 UN-Habitat, 2003a,pp75–77.132 Broadhurst et al, 2007.133 Denner et al, 2001.134 Moser et al, 2005.135 Unnithan and Whitt, 1992.136 Gartner, 1990; Fajnzylber etal 1999.137 Andrienko, 2002.138 Cornelius, 1969; Lodhi andTilly, 1973.139 Gaviria and Pages, 2002.140 Moser et al, 2005.141 Gaviria and Pages, 2002.142 UNODC, 2005b, p8.143 Boamah and Stanley, 2007.144 Weber, 1899; Wirth, 1938.145 Glaeser and Sacerdote,1999.146 Gaviria and Pages, 2002;Glaeser and Sacerdote,1999.147 Gaviria and Pages, 2002.148 Monkkonen, 2001a.149 Fafchamps and Moser, 2003.150 Decker et al, 1982; Felson,2002.151 Manso et al, 2005.152 Newman, 1973.153 Originated by Jeffrey, 1977.The theory has undergone