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Index445individual 34–35municipal factors 33national factors 29–31New York 100–101perceptions 19–20privatization 14public understanding 21urban factors 31–33security of tenure 3–4, 7, 15–17, 111–114, 117–121, 262acts of commission/acts of omission 149, 150civil society responses 151–152corruption 122disasters 133–134, 186evictions 15expropriation 126–127forced evictions 15, 16, 112, 124–126, 236, 312–319civil society responses 151–152development projects 147infrastructure projects 124, 128–129international law 236international mega events 124, 129international organizations 152–153land registries 145legal protection 145–148procedural protections 147urban beautification 124, 129–130human rights 15, 37, 135, 151, 153–158, 262–268, 317impacts 120–121informal settlements 134–135, 303–304infrastructure projects 128–129international law 36international organizations 152–153land administration 143–145land titling 126, 140–143local government 272–273market-based evictions 15, 126measurement 20, 119–120migrant workers 133Millennium Development Goals 119, 138policy responses 137, 158–159statutory tenure 142tenants 131–132tenure regularization 137–140, 142urban poor 131violations 148–151vulnerability 25, 26, 31–32women 37, 132sediment deposition 205seismic protection skills 296Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) 37, 216,279self-reliance 297–298self-report crime surveys 20Sen, Amartya 7, 38SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) 37, 216,279sex tourism 78shadow economy 49shelter provision 293–294Shimla (India), disaster risk 184silent complicity 273Simmel, Georg 12Singapore, land-use planning 227situational crime prevention 69skyscrapers 185slope instability 185slums 9, 114disaster risk 176disaster vulnerability 163, 186–187forced evictions 16health threats 10land-use planning 205–207, 284population increase 121–122security of tenure 111, 120–121, 135, 237upgrading 137–140, 279vulnerability 3, 10, 163, 186–187see also favelasSmall Arms Survey 62, 70social capital 37, 47, 97, 104–105, 107crime and violence 235, 247–248disaster resilience 201disaster risk 319social development, crime prevention 99social fragility 198social isolation 186socialization 311social vulnerability 23solidarity 87, 202South Africacrime prevention 305–306culture of fear 73disaster risk mapping 285expropriation 127forced evictions 145housing rights 148inheritance laws 132integrated development plans 91murder rates 71private security 75road traffic accidents 229security of tenure 122, 154–155, 156, 316–317technological risk 204vigilantism 14violence 14violence against women 59Soviet Union‘blat’ system 50see also Russian FederationSpain, housing rights 148spatial change 33spatial partnerships 254special social interest zones 151, 269speed bumps 227see also road safetysquatters 34, 68, 116adverse possession 141crime and violence 310disaster impact 186