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forcement and affirmation (identity support). The type of response
(rejection versus support) is seen as very important for the well-being
of transgender individuals (see further Nuttbrock et al. 2002).
4.4 The transgender phenomenon in an historical
perspective
The transgender phenomenon, i.e., transvestism, transsexualism, has
been documented throughout times and across cultures and in different
parts of the world (Bullough 1974, 1976a,b, 1987; Bullough &
Bullough 1977, 1993; Green 1969; Docter 1988; Bockting & Cesaretti
2001). According to Bullough & Bullough (1993) it is important
to consider an historical perspective in order to be able to understand
individuals who feel a need to dress in the clothes of the opposite gender,
i.e., cross-dressing. During certain periods of time and in some cultures
cross-dressing has been associated with homosexuality while in other
cultures it has been connected with both heterosexuality and homosexuality.
The attitudes towards cross-dressing have, according to Bullough
& Bullough, varied strongly in different periods of time. Cross-dressing
for a large part of our history was seen as having no links with sexuality
at all. Nor was it viewed as a sign of mental disease. In many so-called
“primitive” cultures it was regarded as an expression of a normal variation
in human behaviour. However, cross-dressing often had religious
connections or other meanings and represented an important element in
many religious ceremonies (Bullough & Bullough 1993).
Transvestism is often described as a relatively common phenomenon
in many “primitive” cultures. What is usually termed the berdache
or two-spirit phenomenon in many Native American tribes or North-
American Indian cultures has been described by several researchers
(McCubbin 1981; Roscoe 1994; Whitehead 1981). The berdaches
were considered to possess great supernatural powers (Hultkrantz
1980; Roscoe 1994). They often wore clothing of the opposite gender
and these male and female transvestites were treated with great respect
and often achieved high social status. Most of the berdaches were men
(Whitehead 1981). Many were homosexual or lesbian whilst some were
asexual and others heterosexual (Bullough and Bullough 1993).
Religious experience from Indian culture, also, indicates a connection
between various forms of ritual transvestism and the development
of spiritual awareness or self-realisation. Through cross-dressing in
50 • summary