wilamowski-b-m-irwin-j-d-industrial-communication-systems-2011

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7-6 Industrial Communication Systems in this category comprise core extraction distributed ad hoc routing (CEDAR) protocol [SSB99] and zone-based hierarchical link state (ZHLS) routing protocol. 7.2.2.2 Flat and Hierarchical Routing Protocols Hierarchical routing protocols arrange nodes in the form of clusters or trees where every cluster has a cluster head. Cluster heads may also aggregate data from cluster nodes to reduce the number of packet transmissions and hence conserve energy [CPF05] or may provide gateway to external networks. Advantages of hierarchical routing protocols include scalability and efficient communication [AK04]. AODV, DSDV, and DSR are examples of flat routing protocols, while CGSR is an example of hierarchical routing scheme. 7.2.2.3 Position- and Nonposition-Based Routing Protocols It is experimentally verified that reactive and proactive routing protocols, including AODV, DSDV, and DSR that do not use location information in routing decisions, face scalability issues as opposed to location-based routing strategies [S02]. Location-based routing depends upon the physical position of the nodes in the network to take routing decisions [MWH01]. To get location/position information, the node may use a lowpower global positioning system (GPS) if the nodes are outdoor or may rely on relative positioning techniques based on the signal strength or manual registration process. Several position-based routing schemes [SL01] have already been presented by the research community. Position-based routing algorithms are classified into greedy and restricted directional flooding. In greedy approaches, the distance toward the sink node is either maximized or minimized depending upon forwarding strategy, while in directional flooding, the data are always flooded toward the nodes which are in the direction of the destination node. Greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) [KK00] and geographic distance routing (GEDIR) [SL01] are examples of position-based routing protocols working on the principle of greedy forwarding approach. 7.2.3 MAC Layer MAC schemes are used to define policy for accessing the shared medium in ad hoc networks. Limited spectrum, multiple access, node mobility, error-prone environment, and characteristics of wireless medium like noise, fading, and interference compel to design MAC schemes customized for wireless environments. The MAC schemes for ad hoc networks can be classified into contention-free and contention-based protocols. Contention-free protocols work better in infrastructure-driven networks with a master node controlling the medium access. Contention-based protocols work in a decentralized fashion and can be divided into random access and controlled access (scheduling- and reservation-based) protocols. The performance of such protocols is deteriorated by hidden and exposed terminal problems and requires special attention. Let us assume that node-1 is sending data to node-2, as shown in Figure 7.3. Furthermore, assume that node-3 is also about to send data to node-2. As node-3 is out of the transmission range of node-1, Range of 1 Range of 2 Range of 3 1 2 3 4 FIGURE 7.3 Hidden and exposed terminal problem. © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Ad Hoc Networks 7-7 it will sense the medium as free and sends data to node-2 which will result in a collision. This is known as hidden terminal problem; node-1 and node-3 are hidden from each other. This issue is solved by requestto-send/clear-to-send (RTS/CTS) mechanism. Now, assume that node-3 knows by RTS/CTS mechanism that node-1 and node-2 are communicating; it will refrain from communicating with node-4 as well, though node-4 is beyond the range of node-2 and thus channel capacity will be unnecessarily wasted. This is known as exposed terminal problem. 7.2.3.1 random Access Schemes In random access schemes (also know as contention-based scheme), nodes contend for the shared channel with the neighboring nodes (nodes within interference range) and the winning nodes get hold of the medium. Such schemes cannot guarantee QoS because access to the channel is not guaranteed and is random. In ALOHA [N70], a node simply sends data as soon as it is available. Slotted ALOHA introduces time division multiple access (TDMA)–like time-slots to reduce the number of collisions. Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)–based schemes further enhance the performance by carrier sense mechanism. The performance of all such schemes is adversely affected by hidden and exposed terminal problem. 7.2.3.2 reservation-Driven Contention-Based Access In order to overcome the problems of hidden and exposed terminal problems, dynamic reservation-based protocols are designed, which operates on the basis of RTS/CTS mechanism. In such protocols, a node initiates the reservation process if it has some data to send. The sending node sends an RTS packet to the next hop. The next hop in turn replies by a CTS message. Such a CTS is heard by other nodes in the vicinity, and they keep quiet unless the data are actually sent by the initiating node. MAC layer defined by IEEE 802.11 standard includes distributed coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF). DCF is based on CSMA/CA and uses RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK mechanism for data transmission, while PCF is designed for infrastructure-based networks. Other important protocols in this category includes multiple access collision avoidance (MACA) [K90], MACA for wireless LANs (MACAW) [BDSZ94], and floor acquisition multiple access (FAMA) [FG95], which are all based on CSMA/CA. 7.2.3.3 Scheduling-Driven Contention-Based Access Such protocols are designed to provide a certain level of QoS. Scheduling can be a function of different parameters, for example, remaining node energy, traffic loads, and/or bound on packet delays. Some of the scheduling-driven MAC schemes include distributed priority scheduling and medium access [KLSSK02] and distributed laxity-based priority scheduling scheme [KMS05]. 7.2.4 Physical Layer Physical layer translates communication requests from the upper layers into hardware-specific operations to enable transmission or reception of signals. These operations normally involve time and frequency synchronization while also dealing with harsh time variant and frequency-selective wireless channels. Besides, the performances can be severely compromised by interference originating from other terminals operating on nonorthogonal resources, thereby requiring efficient receive strategies which give good complexity performance trade-off. Here, we give an overview of physical layer specification for only two main standards supporting ad hoc wireless networks, i.e., the IEEE 802.11 standard for WLANs [802.11] and the Bluetooth specifications for short-range wireless communications [B01,FBP98]. The first one not only allows single-hop WLAN ad hoc network but can also be extended to multihop networks covering areas of several square kilometers, while the second one can only be used to build smaller scale ad hoc wireless body and PANs. IEEE 802.11 is the first wireless local area network standard with data rates of up to 2.Mbps [802.11]. The original standard has then been extended to 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g which operate in the © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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The Industrial Electronics Handbook
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The Electrical Engineering Handbook
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CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 60
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viii Contents 11 Industrial Strengt
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x Contents 46 Profisafe............
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Preface The field of industrial ele
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xvi Preambles Thilo Sauter Institut
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xviii Preambles are the same. Commu
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xx Preambles In order to cater to h
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xxii Preambles In this manner, it i
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Editorial Board Dietmar Bruckner Vi
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xxviii Editors J. David Irwin recei
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Contributors Teresa Albero-Albero E
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Contributors xxxiii Georg Gaderer I
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Contributors xxxv Peter Neumann Ins
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Contributors xxxvii Thomas Tamandl
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I Technical Principles 1 ISO/OSI Mo
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Technical Principles I-3 18 Clock S
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1-2 Industrial Communication System
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2 Media Herbert Schweinzer Vienna U
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Media 2-3 TABLE 2.1 Overview over S
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Media 2-5 Single ended Differential
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Media 2-7 2.2.6 Standards Numerous
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Media 2-11 uses light backscatterin
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16 Industrial Agent Technology Alek
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18 Clock Synchronization in Distrib
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20 Network-Based Control Josep M. F
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21 Functional Safety Thomas Novak S
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Functional Safety 21-3 IEC 61508:20
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Functional Safety 21-5 safety engin
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22 Security in Industrial Communica
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24 Embedded Networks in Civilian Ai
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25 Process Automation Alois Zoitl V
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27 Industrial Multimedia Javier Sil
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Industrial Multimedia 27-3 Multimed
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Industrial Multimedia 27-5 FIGURE 2
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Industrial Multimedia 27-13 [WIF01]
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28 Industrial Wireless Communicatio
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Industrial Wireless Communications
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29 Protocols in Power Generation Tu
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III Technologies 31 Controller Area
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31 Controller Area Network Joaquim
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32 Profibus Max Felser Bern Univers
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33 INTERBUS Juergen Jasperneite Ost
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INTERBUS 33-3 One total frame Loopb
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34 WorldFip Francisco Vasques Unive
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WorldFip 34-3 Data producer Data co
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35 Foundation Fieldbus Carlos Eduar
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36 Modbus Mário de Sousa Universit
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Modbus 36-15 Modbus TCP frame MBAP
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37 Industrial Ethernet Gaëlle Mars
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40 PROFINET Max Felser Bern Univers
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PROFINET 40-3 A plant unit contains
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45 LIN-Bus Andreas Grzemba Universi
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47 SafetyLon Thomas Novak SWARCO Fu
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SafetyLon 47-9 base. Typically, suc
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48 Wireless Local Area Networks Hen
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50 ZigBee Stefan Mahlknecht Vienna
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ZigBee 50-3 Wireless communication
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51 6LoWPAN: IP for Wireless Sensor
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52 WiMAX in Industry Milos Manic Un
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53 WirelessHART, ISA100.11a, and OC
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TABLE 54.1 Characteristics of Some
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FIGURE 55.1 CPU IN-Log IN-Num OUT-l
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START FIGURE 55.3 COLD WARM STOP E_
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START RUNSTOP COLD INIT INITO WARM
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FIGURE 55.9 Different addresses of
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EtherNet FIGURE 55.11 Device: LED1
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60 User Datagram Protocol—UDP Ale
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61 Transmission Control Protocol—
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65 Semantic Web Services for Manufa
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Semantic Web Services for Manufactu
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V Outlook 67 Trends and Challenges
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68 Processing Data in Complex Commu
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