Main trends of research in the social and human ... - unesdoc - Unesco

Sociology I I I
In a way, Gouldner follows sociological tradition more closely than Goode,
inasmuch as the decision-making individual is not discussed in detail. At the
same time, he is a neofunctionalist in the sense that he pursues the sociological
function of reciprocity in all its details. Thus, for instance, it is obvious that not
all gifts can be returned immediately. But the time lapse between receiving and
returning has an important social function. As long as the feeling of obligation
on the part of the debtor and the expectation of return by the creditor persists,
the probability of peace is greater.82 The aspects of the reciprocity relation,
such as the ambiguity as to what is an equivalent, are given similar functional
interpretations.
The most extensive social analysis in terms of reciprocity and exchange is
found in a book by Peter Bla~.~3 He translates a large number of classical
sociological topics into neo-functional language, often with surprising results.
The emphasis on power in the title reflects the fact that, in his view, norms of
reciprocity greatly help to clarify the stratification systems of modern society.
Mechanisms such as reciprocity and exchange, permit discussion of one
final point. In Merton’s paper and in Nagel’s formalization, one question was
not raised: in what way is an item (i) ‘explained’ through the contribution it
makes to a larger system (S)? The term ‘explanation’ is ambiguous, so no
simple answer can be gi~en.~4 But it is discomforting to see something explained
by a subsequent consequence. As far as I can see, Hempel was the first to bring
up this question. Since then it has been approached in several ways. Attention
to functional mechanisms is one answer. If the total system rewards the subunit
for its contribution, we have a phenomenon of mutual interaction which
does not create any special logical problems.
A second approach has been suggested by two authors, the American Stinchcombe
and the Pole Malewski. While they use different terminology, their ideas
are the same. Stinchcombe talks of social selection processes and applies a
Darwinian model to social systems. Some survive better because they have subunits
which make more productive contributions. In this way, the time sequence
is straightened out. The consequences in a first generation account for the survival
of the subunit in subsequent generations. Malewski uses the reward
model of a generalized learning theory. Functions with positive consequences
are reinforced. As a general model, selection and reinforcement are certainly
logically acceptable. Whether the models wil be supported by concrete evidence
wil have to be seen. In any case, it is likely that the neo-functionalist and the
general systems approaches wil tend to converge. If so, this is a future trend
which wil deserve careful attention.
Critical theory and dialectics
Germany makes its contribution through what has come to be known as
critical theory. This has created a schism among German sociologists, with
repercussions abroad. One must distinguish a recent and a more remote history
of this trend.
In the mid-1920’s the University of Frankfurt created an Institute of Social
Research of which Max Horkheimer became director in 1931. Several years