CORRUPTION Syndromes of Corruption

38 Syndromes of Corruption
institutions influence the kinds of corruption we encounter – participants,
relationships among them, benefits at stake, and implications for development.
To search for syndromes of corruption is, in effect, to ask what
are the underlying developmental processes, and problems, of which a society’s
corruption is symptomatic? Huntington (1968), for example, suggested
years ago that where economic opportunities are more plentiful than
political ones, ambitious people use wealth to seek power. Where political
opportunities abound and economic ones are scarce, by contrast, power
pursues wealth. Where institutions are weak, other contrasts may emerge:
a weak state may be vulnerable to illicit private pressures, unable to
restrain the conduct of officials, or both. Civil society may not exist, or
not be strong enough to sustain social trust and channel demands through
accepted norms and networks. Some states protect property rights effectively
and intervene in the economy in judicious ways; in others, ownership
and contracts mean little while state intervention enriches officials
and their favored clients. Weak institutions not only allow citizens and
officials to seek illicit gains, at times with impunity; they also create
incentives for more corruption as people seek protection in an uncertain
environment.
Underlying variations in participation and institutions will not determine
every detail of a country’s corruption problems: personalities,
events, crackdowns and reforms, and popular responses can all play
roles. International influences, both long-term (e.g. pressures for political
and economic liberalization) and more immediate (the activities of multinational
businesses and international aid and lending bodies) are also
critical, as will become apparent in several case studies. Further, some
kinds of corruption, such as payoffs and shakedowns involving police and
customs officials, are found more or less everywhere. I seek a middle level
of comparison – to identify, account for, and explore the significance
of contrasting corruption issues that are manifestations of four major
syndromes. The goal is to know what is at stake in a country’s corruption,
how people and groups pursue, use, and exchange wealth and power, and
how those processes are abetted or constrained by institutions and competing
or opposing interests. Relative amounts of corruption, to the extent
that they are even knowable, will be a secondary concern at most.
Four categories
Participation and institutions can combine in a variety of ways, and for
every generalization there will be exceptions. The evidence available also
varies widely among societies. The challenge is to identify country categories
broad enough to preserve important commonalities, to avoid