CORRUPTION Syndromes of Corruption

176 Syndromes of Corruption
emerge on its own. It requires that people and groups perceive a strong,
self-interested stake in politics and markets and a realistic chance of
defending their interests. Strong public institutions (and, as China’s
case shows, a workable conception of what ‘‘public’’ does and does not
mean) are essential to that sort of reform, but they cannot be created by
fiat, legislation, or enhanced administrative procedures alone. Critical
sustaining energy for reform, based on lasting identities and interests,
must come from society itself (on the history of such efforts see Klopp,
2002). But organizing citizens for reform as a worthy social purpose will
rarely be sufficient: reduced corruption is a public good, often won at
considerable risk and sacrifice, and free-rider problems can be severe.
Extensive contention among social forces with real roots in society is
essential if broadly supported political and economic settlements are to
be reached and sustained by lasting interests.
Power without accountability
Kenya’s corruption reflects deeper and broader problems. The 31 million
residents of this former British colony have a GDP per capita of only
about $1,000 per year, and suffer from some of the world’s highest
mortality rates. Over two million suffer from HIV or AIDS, and the
disease claims nearly 200,000 lives per year. Less than a tenth of the
country’s land is arable. Human rights abuses, police violence, and a
weak court system for years made the rule of law a doubtful proposition
for most citizens (Ross, 1992: 429; Amnesty International, 2000). For a
generation the economy has been stagnant or contracting, while the
population has grown at over 1 percent per year, enlarged also by a
quarter-million refugees fleeing conflicts in nearby regions. Kenyans are
poorer now than they were a generation ago, and the state’s ability to
deliver essential services has deteriorated (Human Rights Watch,
2002: 3).
As with other African societies those problems are not the whole story.
Kenya is a vigorous society with widespread literacy and considerable
grassroots activism. Corruption, human rights abuses, environmental
issues, and violence against women have all been the focus of demonstrations
and organizational activity. The Kibaki government has only been
in office a short time and faces problems on a fearsome scale, but it has
moved aggressively against judicial corruption. Early reports suggested a
renewed social optimism, resistance to corruption and other abuses, and
trends toward improved official behavior (Lacey, 2003a). There are
poorer societies in Africa and elsewhere, and there are places plagued
by more extensive violence. Tribal identities and loyalties, a source of