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72 � To ensure that where commercial companies and local authorities compete directly in the market, that the two services are treated equivalently from the point of view of VAT. One way of doing this would be to require local authorities to charge VAT to customers where they engage in what is effectively the provision of a commercial service. In the absence of these changes, the rather obvious point is that local authorities, in benchmarking the value for money of their services, would effectively have a significant head start in seeking to demonstrate such value. Indeed, the consequences might be to preserve existing levels of inefficiency as long as these were not in excess of the implied level of cost advantage implied by the VAT regime. If this delineation is successfully achieved, and made explicit in legislation, one might have good reason to hope that some of the existing tensions will become less problematic. The spheres of influence will be clarified somewhat. Indeed, we doubt, if this situation were to become established, whether the current role of local authorities in issuing waste collection permits, would remain as it currently stands. The OECD was keen to highlight the potential for local authorities to make use of their licensing powers to improve the quality of service delivery: 29/09/09 As for local authorities, in the short-term, they should review how they could better make use of their licensing authority. As this step, however, will increase conflicts of interest under the dual responsibility model, it may be wise to transfer licensing authority to the regional or national levels in the longer-term. If, as proposed elsewhere in this review: � Ambitious targets are set for household waste management (see Main Summary Report); � Local authorities are given responsibility for household waste collection (see Annex 3.0); � Service standards are set for commercial and industrial waste collection (see Main Summary); and � Levies on residual waste management are set so as to internalise externalities and improve the management of waste (see Annex 56.0), then the key issue in terms of licensing waste collectors is likely to become one of ensuring the collectors are registered and operating in line with Articles 26 and 34 of the Waste Framework Directive. As an additional point, as mentioned above, it is not clear why local authorities play different regulatory role in respect of producer responsibility for packaging to their role in other producer responsibility schemes. It may be that there are good reasons for this (the diffuse nature of the responsibility), but there might also be some inefficiencies in the regulation of these schemes, not least to the extent that the regulated parties across the different waste streams are, in some cases, one and the same entity. Finally, it is difficult to completely separate concerns regarding the role which local authorities play in the market from their role, in the regions, as developers of
statutory waste management plans. In our view, this aspect has not been explored in sufficient depth. The implications for competition of a system in which: � Regions, composed of local authorities, develop regional waste management plans; � The plans designate the required facilities; and � Alternatives to the facilities in the plan are rejected for being non-compliant with the plan are clear. In short, monopolies are de facto established, the more so if local authorities seek to use powers of direction to channel waste into a specific facility. This is not a healthy situation. The role of the regions is addressed in Annex 5.0. 73 International Review of Waste Policy: Annexes
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International Review of Waste Manag
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29/09/09
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ii 32.0 Levy on Waste Paints - Inte
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Glossary of Acronyms iv 29/09/09 AB
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vi 29/09/09 MSW Municipal solid was
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WASTE POLICIES - EXISTING FRAMEWORK
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3 departing from the hierarchy wher
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7. The inclusion of measures to pre
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7 Reuse; Reuse; Reuse; for example
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ut both grow. “Absolute decouplin
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1.4 Waste Recycling and Composting
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13 waste from these sources. Member
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Management (Food Waste) Regulations
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17 Such measures may include an acc
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19 � endeavour to reduce the use
Page 33 and 34: 21 the European Union. Apart from l
Page 35 and 36: 23 1. Member States shall set up a
Page 37 and 38: 1.6 The Incineration Directive The
Page 39 and 40: 1.7 The UNECE / Stockholm Conventio
Page 41 and 42: 29 � Lindane to Annex A; � Pent
Page 43 and 44: 2.0 Policy Instruments for Waste Ma
Page 45 and 46: 33 agencies), and occasionally unde
Page 47 and 48: Mechanisms which operate through th
Page 49 and 50: identical, but in practice they hav
Page 51 and 52: 39 that firms may still need to be
Page 53 and 54: 41 � Recycling investment tax cre
Page 55 and 56: 43 � Lack of communication betwee
Page 57 and 58: 3.2 Issues with Current Situation I
Page 59 and 60: 47 Greenstar claims that when the l
Page 61 and 62: 3.3 Market Failure Currently in Ire
Page 63 and 64: 51 franchise agreements reduce the
Page 65 and 66: as set out by the EU is limited in
Page 67 and 68: The beneficial network effects, or
Page 69 and 70: 3.6 Recommendations What is often d
Page 71 and 72: 59 which was designed to reflect a
Page 73 and 74: 61 1. Whether the private sector ha
Page 75 and 76: 4.0 The Role of Local Authorities 4
Page 77 and 78: that there have been no significant
Page 79 and 80: Local authorities have no obvious m
Page 81 and 82: introduced (and under which, they w
Page 83: 71 International Review of Waste Po
Page 87 and 88: Each region has devised, and period
Page 89 and 90: uneconomic infrastructure and regio
Page 91 and 92: 79 programme of measures to achieve
Page 93 and 94: Waste referred to in paragraph 1 is
Page 95 and 96: It is suggested that the regions sh
Page 97 and 98: 6.0 Review of Irish Policy on Preve
Page 99 and 100: 2. High quality data relating to wa
Page 101 and 102: company linked to the municipality
Page 103 and 104: infrastructure with a high emphasis
Page 105 and 106: 93 and liaise with local authoritie
Page 107 and 108: To date the Market Development Grou
Page 109 and 110: Table 6-1: Generation of Municipal
Page 111 and 112: No adjustment was made to the proje
Page 113 and 114: whilst initiatives for unsolicited
Page 115 and 116: 7.0 Pay-By-Use - Ireland 7.1 Outlin
Page 117 and 118: One of the waste management commitm
Page 119 and 120: eporting in the Annual National Was
Page 121 and 122: 109 � In the absence of a kerbsid
Page 123 and 124: in case study areas, and an increas
Page 125 and 126: shifts/by separate staff, which in
Page 127 and 128: not reflected in reduced costs to c
Page 129 and 130: extent to which this compromises an
Page 131 and 132: and residual waste fee not so great
Page 133 and 134: 121 � Choosing collection schemes
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8.3 Key Organisations Involved in I
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of material generated as waste (sin
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Figure 8-2: Balance of Costs and Be
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counterfactual. This type of approa
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131 � Bin-volume based (i.e. wher
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133 � Sack-based schemes with cha
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Table 8-4: Costs under Flat Rate Fe
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to this type of abuse given a) its
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the effect of certain variables on
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effects are not always verifiable i
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A French study (results shown in Fi
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Therefore, it would seem reasonable
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In many jurisdictions, where the pr
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149 “M&S [Marks & Spencer] sell t
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cost of residual waste treatment is
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eduction in waste quantities. The m
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A useful report on illegal dumping,
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Generally, the view which prevails
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9.0 Pay-by-use - Germany 9.1 Outlin
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Table 9-2: Charges for Residual Was
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163 Environmental Advisors (Sachver
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Figure 9-2: Quantities of Residual
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The bulky waste collections, Figure
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The net effect of these changes for
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the market such as waste sluices (e
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Prior to the system’s introductio
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The case of Schweinfurt is truly ou
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10.1.2 Approaches to Selective Coll
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10.4 Key Organisations Involved in
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FOST-Plus reports the following col
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to recover costs in such a way that
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11.0 Landfill Levy - Ireland 11.1 O
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187 � Landfill operators. Local A
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Table 11-2: Trends in Household Was
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191 • The effects of the Repak Pa
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positive. In 2007, of the €32,398
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11.8 Response from Public and Indus
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When the landfill levy was first in
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12.0 Producer Responsibility, Packa
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Although the European legislation d
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Table 12-1: Distribution of Respons
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205 (v) 15% by weight for wood, sup
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207 Companies that supply packaging
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Data from both Repak and self-compl
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Table 12-3: Average Compound Rate o
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The EEA report identifies the role
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The same study went on to highlight
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217 materials at source, effectivel
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and processors). In terms of the re
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Repak members, and non-major produc
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In their submission of information
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225 a. Direct costs of compliance (
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As noted above, there are differenc
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Directive. The current Regulations
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each year by an Industrial Structur
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generally cheaper to collect as it
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Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands
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Figure 13-1: Packaging Recycling an
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Country Country 241 % % of of colle
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It can be seen that against this me
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Figure 13-4: German License Fees Pa
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This is likely to have been depende
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Table 13-9: Financing Sources for R
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iv) Operational Operational Operati
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Table 14-2: Operators of Dual Syste
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provided by the DSD. Through the DS
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Following a poll in 2004, it became
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packaging has to be licensed by the
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15.0 Producer Responsibility - Flan
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265 � The industrial federations
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used to reimburse (inter)municipali
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Consumers can bring old and expired
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15.3.7 Waste Tyres The implementati
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273 � which treatment facilities
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VALORFRIT reimburses the municipali
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Figure 15-3: Belgian Packaging Wast
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279 � Widespread use of PBU; �
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Figure 15-4: Collection for Recycli
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283 � by January 2015, reuse and
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RECUPEL has continually sampled 5 %
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is currently being performed to ide
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Table 15-7 Green Dot Fees for Packa
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Moreover, the provisions of BEBAT n
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293 • All other types of oil gene
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procedure. It would be considerably
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16.0 Deposit Refund Systems - Inter
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same order as the cost savings from
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Country Country System System Year
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Page 317 and 318:
Page 319 and 320:
Page 321 and 322:
NT$13.01 per kg (US$0.39 at January
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collectors. These super-collectors
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A study in 2002 reviewed the outcom
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315 The existing studies show that
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Figure 16-2: Performance of US Stat
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Figure 16-5: Return Percentages of
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This is not to deny the possibility
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323 in in in packaging, packaging,
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harm caused by plastics in the mari
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327 Deposit containers would be tra
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have to be compared with the costs
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Of particular interest are some of
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Figure 16-7: Economic Cost per Tonn
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One of the concerns within Europe h
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(e.g. brought from Germany) so that
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Another pre-requisite, partly becau
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341 International Review of Waste P
Page 355 and 356:
343 � Council of Environmental Ad
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step towards turning people away fr
Page 359 and 360:
The sectors that profited from the
Page 361 and 362:
349 � Willingness of the industry
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Green-Schools is run by An Taisce f
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18.3 When was the Policy Introduced
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355 � Green Homes: The Green Home
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Figure 18-1: Green Homes Research -
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composter. There are similar saving
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information on the various themes i
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Producers must register with the na
Page 377 and 378:
365 • 2008: The Waste Management
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367 • Approved producer complianc
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the generation of electrical and el
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80% of WEEE primary processing take
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outed to charities and schools to d
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since June 2006 to guide and co-ord
Page 389 and 390:
377 � Category 10 - Automatic dis
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table are the ‘2008 Review of Dir
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National National Register Register
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383 � The financial structures as
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purchased), though some offer it vo
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In order to facilitate their financ
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that product, the risk that the mat
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particular streams of WEEE. For exa
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Table 20-2 gives the amount of each
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demand that the receiving facilitie
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Table 20-3: Range of Total Costs fo
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kg), and a TV (15 kg), finding the
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20.10 Lessons Learned Administrativ
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Historical and ‘orphan’ waste,
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in 2012. Hence, the revision may im
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equipment. Furthermore producers do
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409 � 31 st December 2005: Almost
Page 423 and 424:
411 � Regarding “new” WEEE (e
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ate of WEEE collected after the int
Page 427 and 428:
A serious problem is the illegal ex
Page 429 and 430:
22.0 Producer Responsibility, ELVs
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practice previously resulted in the
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421 of that producer's brand or for
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Ireland would be able to meet the r
Page 437 and 438:
22.6.2 Environmental Benefits Assoc
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According to this paper: 427 � Th
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oth pieces of legislation is to res
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23.0 Producer Responsibility, ELVs
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driven the reclamation industry to
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23.2.7 Country-specific Characteris
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Page 451 and 452:
In addition to the benefits associa
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key reports highlight the importanc
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Government in the form of additiona
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affected. In any event, the effect
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447 happen and because a reasonable
Page 461 and 462:
24.2 Policy Context and Reason for
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time of writing, though it is under
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24.7 Environmental Benefits The Bat
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24.11 Social and Distributional Con
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25.0 Producer Responsibility, Batte
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459 � The competent authorities s
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1995. 537 This proliferation is pri
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463 � Countries where separate co
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This has been possible under a broa
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specific battery types, they might
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For automotive and industrial batte
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25.6.1.2 Retailer Take-back Schemes
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Table 25-5: Average Cost per Kilogr
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effectively be financed at a cost o
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Collection methods in Europe have p
Page 491 and 492:
26.2 Reasons for the Policy Accordi
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Page 495 and 496:
Figure 26-2: German Battery Composi
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26.11 Evasion and Enforcement The c
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27.0 Plastic Bag Levy - Ireland 27.
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27.5.1 Evaluation Studies Available
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491 � Retailers find the effects
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ags in 2003, compared with 36% in 1
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27.10 Social and Distributional Con
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27.14 Lessons Learned 27.14.1 Gener
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499 � Higher rates of recycling;
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Table 28-2: The Organisation of the
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same period of 9.8%. 600 The Danish
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that only 8,000-10,000 businesses w
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28.12 Lessons Learned The Danish sc
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a government body, the revenue is
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511 � Lubricating oil; � Antifr
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Considering the impact on the consu
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30.0 Product Taxes - Belgium 30.1 O
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and the Minister of Economic Affair
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Figure 30-1: Market Data on Single
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In order to achieve these targets,
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ecycling targets is partly linked t
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31.0 Plastic Bag Bans - Internation
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31.5 Environmental Benefits Environ
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32.0 Levy on Waste Paints - Interna
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The report concluded that total emp
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33.0 Circular WPPR 17/08 - Ireland
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private sector operators incur cost
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the organic waste fraction is no mo
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investments are utilised, will be i
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33.12 Complementary Policies Comple
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34.0 Minimum Recycling Standards (H
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paper/cardboard, metals (aluminium
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England and Wales (United Kingdom)
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householder/small commercial sector
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government is responsible for the w
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Indeed, there are clearly synergies
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strengthened as the increased costs
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from 15.4 % in 1994 to 49.2 % in 20
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materials. 675 Thus complementary p
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34.9 Effect of the Policy on Pricin
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� Strong industrial support via p
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municipality) unless it is composte
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City of Portland, Oregon (USA) The
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waste from manufacturing industries
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solid pre-requisite for the product
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575 However, pending the adoption o
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where the abovementioned statutory
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36.5 Environmental Benefits The env
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Table 36-2 Amount (‘000 tonnes) o
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separated kitchen and garden waste,
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36.9 Effect of the Policy on Pricin
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product, especially when bioactive
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589 risk of contamination with othe
Page 603 and 604:
Page 605 and 606:
37.6.1 Environmental Benefits - Pre
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For proposed new composting facilit
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597 • The contaminated batch and
Page 611 and 612:
Table 38-1: Junk Mail Policies Name
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them to increase efforts at suppres
Page 615 and 616:
Table 38-3: Cost Savings from Junk
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39.0 Review of Irish Policy, Constr
Page 619 and 620:
39.1.2 Recycling of C&D Waste - Gen
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40.3 When was the Policy Introduced
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out in national policy and in the i
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currently working in this area and
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goals that are shared by the Nation
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617 waste minimisation and recyclin
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41.7 Environmental Benefits The rev
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to 2 per cent of the landfill levy,
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623 � the name of the accountable
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625 initiatives. In other words, th
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environmental protection and optimu
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The NCDWC had a high level of suppo
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42.15 Lessons Learned For the purpo
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mandatory to varying degrees in Eng
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Japan 635 � Monitoring and auditi
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Hong Kong Industry surveying and in
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Table 43-1: Estimated Total Cost of
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43.8 Social and Distributional Cons
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short time frame over which it has
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In December 2007, Mr. John Gormley,
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647 of waste recovered at the facil
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44.13 Effect of the Policy on Prici
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implementing and managing the Proto
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46.0 Tax on Aggregates - Internatio
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The UK’s ‘Aggregate Levy’ app
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The following study is a comparison
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The intention to implement a landfi
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has encouraged innovation in recycl
Page 675 and 676:
46.9.1 Quality Standards European S
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665 � if one fails to deregister,
Page 679 and 680:
47.0 Product Standards for Aggregat
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It lays down regulations and standa
Page 683 and 684:
has been recognised that recycled o
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48.0 Minimum Recycling Standards (C
Page 687 and 688:
Companies are obliged to either sep
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Table 48-2: Construction and Demoli
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Construction and demolition project
Page 693 and 694:
Belgium Following Article 16 in Cha
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The UK Environment Agency have buil
Page 697 and 698:
during Construction Work came into
Page 699 and 700:
codes. For example, Korea introduce
Page 701 and 702:
In Japan, the lead contractor is re
Page 703 and 704:
50.0 Minimum Recycling Standards (C
Page 705 and 706:
POLICIES FOR RESIDUAL WASTE 693 Int
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695 advance the Commission of their
Page 709 and 710:
have stabilised over the last six y
Page 711 and 712:
ased instruments, or through regula
Page 713 and 714:
Figure 51-4: Materials Captured (re
Page 715 and 716:
200,000 tonnes, though some of this
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tonnes early in 2010, and as much a
Page 719 and 720:
We discuss the matters further belo
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as was made clear above, the inclus
Page 723 and 724:
51.4.2.3 Comment on Targets A conce
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seem that there is little or no bas
Page 727 and 728:
It acknowledges the role of a numbe
Page 729 and 730:
The proposed minimum pre-treatment
Page 731 and 732:
719 The introduction of this measur
Page 733 and 734:
The growing strength of these inter
Page 735 and 736:
It goes on: 723 fully stabilised wa
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of electricity consumption from ren
Page 739 and 740:
52.0 Policies Aimed at Discouraging
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promote cost effective means of res
Page 743 and 744:
authorities work jointly on a strat
Page 745 and 746:
Table 52-1: Summary of Measures by
Page 747 and 748:
It is illuminating to note that in
Page 749 and 750:
737 implemented to make treatment o
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environmental projects, and 45% is
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enclosure; and ii) municipal waste
Page 755 and 756:
52.2.4.4 Finland In 1993, two years
Page 757 and 758:
The objectives of the waste tax are
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52.2.4.10 Country-specific Characte
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meant to finance the Modernisation
Page 763 and 764:
751 - 1995: Publication of a regula
Page 765 and 766:
esidual treatments, and thus exempt
Page 767 and 768:
incineration facilities produce ele
Page 769 and 770:
There are several bands in this tax
Page 771 and 772:
educe the quantity, or improve the
Page 773 and 774:
761 announced in the November 1995
Page 775 and 776:
52.4 Evaluation Studies Available I
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disposal costs necessarily would le
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discernible change in the trend in
Page 781 and 782:
A report on Finnish waste managemen
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some cases, notably in the foundry
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absence of any form of waste tax. F
Page 787 and 788:
Netherlands and Sweden. One might a
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777 ‘the amount of landfilled was
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consequences of an incineration tax
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52.5.6 Reduction in Incineration As
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environmental performance. The land
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increase of between 30-100%. In Aus
Page 799 and 800:
emaining residual waste separately.
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52.11 Evasion and Enforcement 52.11
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Table 52-7: Summary of Measures by
Page 805 and 806:
� A clear rationale for the propo
Page 807 and 808:
overall costs of household waste ma
Page 809 and 810:
53.7 Effects on Technical Change /
Page 811 and 812:
the costs for disposal in municipal
Page 813 and 814:
801 � Old and expired medication.
Page 815 and 816:
Even with high landfill levies, the
Page 817 and 818:
Figure 54-4: Revenues from Flemish
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54.11 Lessons Learned A complex sys
Page 821 and 822:
forge a genuinely ‘autonomous’
Page 823 and 824:
administrations is deemed to change
Page 825 and 826:
The desire to improve recycling per
Page 827 and 828:
Table 55-2: BMW Landfilled in Engla
Page 829 and 830:
55.6 Implementation Costs The inten
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context of UK waste management wher
Page 833 and 834:
During 2007/08, the Environment Age
Page 835 and 836:
823 � Market-relevant information
Page 837 and 838:
need to consider not just ‘policy
Page 839 and 840:
In the above scenario, with capture
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829 figures include nappies, as is
Page 843 and 844:
of the order 65% would reduce the q
Page 845 and 846:
56.2 Proposed Policies to Deal with
Page 847 and 848:
2) Incineration, Incineration, Inci
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Table 56-1: Levies Proposed in RIA,
Page 851 and 852:
839 dramatically reduced by margina
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4) Combustible waste 5) Waste excee
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843 Ew means annual energy containe
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OTHER POLICIES 845 International Re
Page 859 and 860:
57.2 Benefits of Green Procurement
Page 861 and 862:
what can, and what cannot be done,
Page 863 and 864:
In light of the renewed EU Sustaina
Page 865 and 866:
WRAP WRAP WRAP The greening of serv
Page 867 and 868:
57.4.3 Washington State Recycling a
Page 869 and 870:
ecommendation to do so in 2003 via
Page 871 and 872:
859 environment into public procure
Page 873 and 874:
has created a ‘level playing fiel
Page 875 and 876:
Article 6 of Regulation (EC) No.850
Page 877 and 878:
epresentations in relation to this
Page 879 and 880:
TARGET SETTING 867 International Re
Page 881 and 882:
specific actors, or failing that, t
Page 883 and 884:
policy has not been sufficiently re
Page 885 and 886:
873 ban only ensures the best use o
Page 887 and 888:
ecent reports from PROGNOS, the EEA
Page 889 and 890:
877 � Separate collection at the
Page 891 and 892:
achieves this rate country wide. So
Page 893 and 894:
Figure 59-3: Recycling Rates Around
Page 895 and 896:
Box 2: Recycling Centres in Upper A
Page 897 and 898:
Source: Eunomia (2007) Scoping new
Page 899 and 900:
Figure 59-8: Recycling Rates Achiev
Page 901 and 902:
absolute terms, i.e. in terms of we
Page 903 and 904:
verbrandbaar bouw- en sloopafval”
Page 905 and 906:
Figure 59-10: Flanders Residual Was
Page 907 and 908:
there does appear to have been a sl
Page 909 and 910:
Figure 59-12: Residual Waste per In
Page 911 and 912:
899 • The total ‘better than ta
Page 913 and 914:
GRANT FUNDING 901 International Rev
Page 915 and 916:
NDP 2000-2006 Waste management & wa
Page 917 and 918:
authority projects approved for ass
Page 919 and 920:
previously been available for such
Page 921 and 922:
Table 60-1: Environment Fund Income
Page 923 and 924:
een provided are available in the E
Page 925 and 926:
additional 10% must be met by anoth
Page 927 and 928:
Management Board (CIWMB) provide gr
Page 929 and 930:
in place. This is very often to ena
Page 931 and 932:
However, earmarking reduces flexibi
Page 933 and 934:
60.8 Approach to Evaluating Effects
Page 935 and 936:
There is evidence to suggest that e
Page 937 and 938:
925 � undertaking research on qua
Page 939 and 940:
60.12 Lessons Learned The Flemish P
Page 941 and 942:
929 might be axed in times of fundi
Page 943 and 944:
61.0 Appraisal of Residual Waste Tr
Page 945 and 946:
933 � Biogas for vehicle fuels?
Page 947 and 948:
at landfill and incineration, but a
Page 949 and 950:
handle. The choice of discount rate
Page 951 and 952:
Other key variables of importance i
Page 953 and 954:
treatment may give rise to damages,
Page 955 and 956:
1. As described above (for basic st
Page 957 and 958:
In addition to these UK focused stu
Page 959 and 960:
Table 61-1: Externality Values for
Page 961 and 962:
Transport externalities were incorp
Page 963 and 964:
arrive at a ‘best estimate’ of
Page 965 and 966:
than greenhouse gases. This is hard
Page 967 and 968:
production, but mainly the much low
Page 969 and 970:
Table 61-5: Summary of externality
Page 971 and 972:
The second report, on the potential
Page 973 and 974:
961 also given the fact that the st
Page 975 and 976:
61.4 Concluding Remarks on the Lite
Page 977 and 978:
965 associated with fuel used withi
Page 979 and 980:
kg kg CO2 CO2 eq. eq. 62.1.1.2 Glob
Page 981 and 982:
These results suggest a significant
Page 983 and 984:
kg kg SO2 SO2 eq. eq. The results s
Page 985 and 986:
62.1.2 Summary of Results In additi
Page 987 and 988:
DALY, DALY, kg kg chloroethylene ch
Page 989 and 990:
This is clearly true, not least sin
Page 991 and 992:
979 � We have used two ‘sets’
Page 993 and 994:
981 includes a dose-response model
Page 995 and 996:
983 assessments is that the blanket
Page 997 and 998:
our analysis, as well as those asso
Page 999 and 1000:
Table 63-2: Emissions Avoided Throu
Page 1001 and 1002:
the Swedish ORWARE model for contro
Page 1003 and 1004:
instantaneous collection rates for
Page 1005 and 1006:
etween 0.1 to 5 l CH4/m 2*h, so tha
Page 1007 and 1008:
include up to 150 substances includ
Page 1009 and 1010:
63.2.2.2 Landfill of Pre-treated Wa
Page 1011 and 1012:
63.3.1.1 Energy Use at Incineration
Page 1013 and 1014:
of a thermal efficiency of 84% and
Page 1015 and 1016:
1003 data obtained from plant opera
Page 1017 and 1018:
Table 63-13: Air Quality Externalit
Page 1019 and 1020:
1007 1. Energy used within the trea
Page 1021 and 1022:
1009 � Optimised biofilter; and
Page 1023 and 1024:
Table 63-18: Results with Low Exter
Page 1025 and 1026:
Table 63-19: Emissions Associated w
Page 1027 and 1028:
metal, the production of which cons
Page 1029 and 1030:
The two processes have similar envi
Page 1031 and 1032:
Eunomia. 1263 The principal climate
Page 1033 and 1034:
Figure 63-1: N-balance of a One Ste
Page 1035 and 1036:
It should be noted that bioaerosols
Page 1037 and 1038:
Table 63-27: Summary of Damage Cost
Page 1039 and 1040:
If the biogas is cleaned of impurit
Page 1041 and 1042:
the source of the natural gas, and
Page 1043 and 1044:
Table 63-34: Summary of Damage Cost
Page 1045 and 1046:
64.0 Costs of Household Waste Colle
Page 1047 and 1048:
Within the following section we ass
Page 1049 and 1050:
in place). It is possible to sense-
Page 1051 and 1052:
Table 64-4: Household Annual Collec
Page 1053 and 1054:
Table 64-6: Interpretation of WRAP
Page 1055 and 1056:
1043 � Refuse collected weekly in
Page 1057 and 1058:
The nature of these authorities the
Page 1059 and 1060:
64.5 Collection Modelling for Irela
Page 1061 and 1062:
ignore, however, is that whilst cos
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