JUDAICA - Wisdom In Torah

Community Leaders
In the 18th and 19th centuries important changes in cultural and
religious life occurred, because of the activities of outstanding
rabbis in the community. A notable improvement took place
with the arrival of R. Ẓedakah *Ḥozin from Aleppo in 1743.
Ḥozin improved the educational system of the city and Jewish
religious education improved. During the 18th century Palestinian
emissaries visited the Baghdad community, strengthening
its ties with the Palestinian population and reinforcing
religious values within the community. Besides collecting
funds for the communities of Jerusalem, Safed, and Hebron,
these emissaries also delivered sermons and resolved halakhic
problems. The most prominent of Baghdad’s rabbis during
the 19th century was R. ʿAbdallah *Somekh, who is considered
the greatest Iraqi rabbi of the last generations. In 1840
he founded a rabbinical college, Beit Zilkha, whose graduates
filled rabbinical positions in many different localities. Among
the Jews of Baghdad in the 19th century were still some writers
of piyyutim, such as R. Sasson b. Israel (1820–1885). In the
same century there were wealthy philanthropists who contributed
generously to the community projects, especially to
educational and religious institutions. The most prominent of
them were Jacob Ẓemaḥ (d. 1847), Ezekiel b. Reuben Manasseh
(d. 1851), Joseph Gurji (d. 1894), Eliezer Kadoorie (1867–1944),
and Menaḥem *Daniel (1846–1940).
Until 1849 the community of Baghdad was led by a nasi,
who was appointed by the vilayet governor, and who also
acted as his banker (ṣarrāf bāshī). The first of these leaders
claimed to be descendants of the house of David and their
positions were inherited by members of their families. Later,
however, the position was purchased. The most renowned of
these leaders were Sassoon b. R. Ẓalaḥ (1781–1817), the father
of the *Sassoon family, and Ezra b. Joseph Gabbai (1817–24).
From 1849 the community was led by the ḥakham bashi who
represented the Jews to the Turkish authorities. The first one
was R. Raphael Kaẓin. The nasi, and later the ḥakham bashi,
were assisted by a council of 10 and later 12 delegates, which
included three rabbis and nine laymen drawn from the wealthier
members of the community. The council collected the
taxes and dealt with community affairs. The collection of the
ʿaskarlī (“military service ransom tax”), which replaced the
jizya (poll tax), was sometimes the cause of violent conflicts
within the community.
World War I and After
Until the British conquest of Baghdad in March 1917, the Jews
were oppressed by the vilayet governor and the police commissioner,
who attempted to extort money from them and to
recruit their youth for the Turkish army. Hundreds of young
men were recruited and the majority were sent to the Caucasus
where many died of starvation and cold. Wealthy Jews
were tortured and killed after being accused of devaluating the
Turkish pound. The Jews naturally rejoiced when the British
occupied Baghdad. The day of their entry was fixed as a yom
nes (17 Adar, 5677, or February 3, 1917). From the conquest
baghdad
until 1929, the Jews of Baghdad enjoyed complete freedom.
Many of them were employed in the civil service, while others
were even appointed to important government positions.
Zionist activities also prospered for some time. However, in
1929, when the British decided to grant independence to Iraq,
many Jewish officials were dismissed from government services,
Zionist activity was prohibited, and, in general, there
was an increase of antisemitism. This was especially so after
Dr. A. Grobbe, the German ambassador in Baghdad, began
to propagandize in 1932.
In 1934 there were large-scale dismissals of Jewish civil
servants, and from 1936 murders of Jews and bombing of their
institutions were added to even more dismissals. These attacks
reached a climax on Shavuot 5701 (June 1–2, 1941) with
Rashīd ʿĀlī’s pro-Axis revolution against the British. During
those two days savage mobs massacred Jews and looted their
property with the passive support of army and police officers.
Neither the regent ʿAbd al-Ilāh, who had arrived in the
city before the beginning of the riots, nor the British troops,
who were stationed outside the city, made any effort to intervene.
According to various sources 120 to 180 Jews, including
women, elderly people, and children, were killed and 800 injured
during some 30 hours. This was accompanied by cases of
rape and abduction of women. The value of the looted property
was estimated at 1,000,000 dinars (or 1,000,000 pounds
sterling – then 4,000,000 dollars). Thousands of Jews left the
city, most of them for India and Palestine. However, many of
them returned before the end of the year after failing to integrate
themselves in these countries and having heard that
the situation in Baghdad had improved. A period of prosperity
ensued and continued until 1945; even though the decrees
concerning their employment in government service and their
admission to public schools had not been repealed, the Jews
lived in Baghdad at ease and without fear.
After 1945 there were frequent demonstrations against
the Jews and especially against Zionism. With the proclamation
of the partition of Palestine, November 1947, even
greater danger threatened the Jews of Baghdad. There was
fear of a massacre, and the Jewish underground defense, organized
with help of Palestinian Jews, was in a state of preparedness;
the catastrophe was averted when martial law was
proclaimed by the government. Nonetheless, many Jews were
brought before military courts and fines were levied on the
majority of them.
Immediately after the establishment of the State of Israel,
hundreds of Baghdadi Jews were arrested. Many of the detainees
were accused of communist or Zionist activities. A few
hundred Jewish youth had joined these clandestine movements,
especially after 1948. Two communist and two Zionist
leaders were hanged publicly in Baghdad. During the government
of ʿAbd Al-Karīm Qassem (July 1958–February 1963) the
attitude toward the Jews was more favorable. Even so, there
were severe periodical restrictions on departure from Iraq,
property confiscation, and a strengthening of economic pressure
on the community.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 3 57