Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology

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336 Chapter 12 high on the factor or factors (the underlying concept or concepts) they are trying to understand. If you want to see what professional scale developers do, consult any of the following: Klonoff and Landrine (2000) (a scale for measuring acculturation among African Americans), Staats et al. (1996) (a scale measuring commitment to pets), Sin and Yau (2004) (a scale for measuring female role orientation in China), and Simpson and Gangstad (1991) (a scale that measures willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations). Most anthropologists won’t develop major scales for others to use, but what you should do is test the unidimensionality of any measures you develop for your own field data, using factor analysis—once you understand the principles of scale development that I’ve laid out here. (And just for the record, some anthropologists do develop scales. See Handwerker [1997] for a scale to measure family violence in Barbados and Gatz and Hurwicz [1990] for a scale to measure depression in old people.) Semantic Differential Scales I’ve always liked the semantic differential scaling method. It was developed in the 1950s by Charles Osgood and his associates at the University of Illinois and has become an important research tool in cognitive studies, including psychology, anthropology, and sociology (Osgood et al. 1957; Snider and Osgood 1969). It has also been used by thousands of researchers across the social sciences, and with good reason: The semantic differential test is easy to construct and easy to administer. Osgood was interested in how people interpret things—inanimate things (like artifacts or monuments), animate things (like persons or the self), behaviors (like incest, or buying a new car, or shooting a deer), and intangible concepts (like gun control or literacy). Of course, this is exactly what Likert scales are designed to test, but instead of asking people to rate questionnaire items about things, Osgood tested people’s feelings differently: He gave them a target item and a list of paired adjectives about the target. The adjective pairs could come from reading of the literature or from focus groups or from ethnographic interviews. Target items can be ideas (land reform, socialism, aggression), behaviors (smoking, running, hunting deer with a bow an arrow), objects (the mall, a courtroom, horses), environmental conditions (rain, drought, jungle) . . . almost anything. Figure 12.1 is an example of a semantic differential test. The target is ‘‘having a cold.’’ If you were taking this test right now, you’d be asked to place a check on each line, depending on your reaction to each pair of adjectives.
Scales and Scaling 337 Having a Cold Hard Easy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Active Passive Difficult Easy Permanent Impermanent Warm Beautiful Strong Reassuring Important Cold Ugly Weak Unsettling Trivial Fast Clean Exciting Slow Dirty Boring Useful Useless Figure 12.1. A semantic differential scale to test how people feel about having a cold. The dimensions in this scale are useful for measuring how people feel about many different things. With a Likert scale, you ask people a series of questions that get at the target concept. In a semantic differential scale, you name the target concept and ask people to rate their feelings toward it on a series of variables. The semantic differential is usually a 7-point scale, as I’ve indicated in the first adjective pair above. (You can leave out the numbers and let people respond to just the visual form of the scale.) Your score on this test would be the sum of all your answers to the 14 adjective pairs. Osgood and his associates did hundreds of replications of this test, using hundreds of adjective pairs, in 26 different cultures. Their analyses showed that in every culture, just three major kinds of adjectives account for most
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H. Russell Bernard FOURTH EDITION R
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Research Methods in Anthropology Fo
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Contents Preface vii 1. Anthropolog
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Preface Since 1988, when I wrote th
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Preface ix sampling: why we do it a
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Preface xi 21, you will be able to
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Preface xiii testimony. There is an
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Preface xv begin writing the second
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1 ◆ Anthropology and the Social S
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Anthropology and the Social Science
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The Foundations of Social Research
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3 ◆ Preparing for Research Settin
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Preparing for Research 71 research
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Preparing for Research 73 morning u
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Preparing for Research 75 the AAA b
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Preparing for Research 77 showed wh
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Preparing for Research 79 That will
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Preparing for Research 81 mothers.
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Preparing for Research 83 gathering
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Preparing for Research 85 hypothesi
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Preparing for Research 87 I mention
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Preparing for Research 89 A Guide t
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Preparing for Research 91 people re
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Preparing for Research 93 Observed
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Preparing for Research 95 dent. (Re
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The Literature Search 97 too busy t
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The Literature Search 99 year, who
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The Literature Search 101 like demo
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The Literature Search 103 reports e
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The Literature Search 105 gists, in
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The Literature Search 107 Women Sca
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5 ◆ Research Design: Experiments
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Research Design: Experiments and Ex
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Sampling 147 ried around here deliv
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Sampling 149 the potential sampling
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Sampling 151 they’re joined by al
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Sampling 153 116. If the first rand
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Sampling 155 off base in our thinki
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Sampling 157 Cluster Sampling and C
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Sampling 159 Probability Proportion
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Sampling 161 you will properly surv
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Sampling 163 the cluster, the large
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Sampling 165 TABLE 6.2 Comparison o
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Sampling 167 25 Number of Household
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7 ◆ Sampling Theory Distributions
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Sampling Theory 171 In normal distr
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Sampling Theory 173 a lot of inform
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Sampling Theory 175 TABLE 7.2 All S
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Sampling Theory 177 12 10 Number of
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Sampling Theory 179 Calculating Sam
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Sampling Theory 181 Look up what’
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Sampling Theory 183 and we solve fo
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Sampling Theory 185 ables combine t
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Nonprobability Sampling and Choosin
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TABLE 8.4 Matches, Proportions of M
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Interviewing: Unstructured and Semi
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10 ◆ Structured Interviewing I: Q
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Structured Interviewing I: Question
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14 ◆ Field Notes: How to Take The
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Field Notes: How to Take Them, Code
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15 ◆ Direct and Indirect Observat
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Direct and Indirect Observation 415
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16 ◆ Introduction to Qualitative
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Introduction to Qualitative and Qua
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START: SEARCH WHOLESALE MARKET FOR
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17 ◆ Qualitative Data Analysis I:
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Qualitative Data Analysis I: Text A
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Qualitative Data Analysis II: Model
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19 ◆ Univariate Analysis The next
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Univariate Analysis 551 But if you
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Univariate Analysis 553 TABLE 19.1
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Univariate Analysis 555 Notice in t
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Univariate Analysis 559 TABLE 19.3b
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Univariate Analysis 561 possible an
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Univariate Analysis 563 people hang
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Univariate Analysis 573 Number of C
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Univariate Analysis 575 some basic
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Univariate Analysis 577 interquarti
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Univariate Analysis 579 countries t
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Univariate Analysis 581 Both groups
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Univariate Analysis 585 would be no
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Univariate Analysis 587 rejecting H
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Univariate Analysis 589 lation, 68.
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Univariate Analysis 591 of Shipibo
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TABLE 19.13 Chi-Square for a Univar
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Bivariate Analysis: Testing Relatio
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TABLE 20.20 Correlation Matrix of A
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21 ◆ Multivariate Analysis Most o
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Multivariate Analysis 651 environme
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Multivariate Analysis 653 TABLE 21.
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TABLE 21.11 Wealth by Education, Co
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Multivariate Analysis 657 it is hig
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Multivariate Analysis 659 ideas abo
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Multivariate Analysis 661 You can a
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Multivariate Analysis 663 which mea
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Multivariate Analysis 667 In fact,
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Multivariate Analysis 669 under plo
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Multivariate Analysis 671 fr .968 R
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Multivariate Analysis 673 earity pr
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Multivariate Analysis 675 BTU and O
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Multivariate Analysis 677 Factor An
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Multivariate Analysis 679 columns h
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Multivariate Analysis 681 4. Across
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Multivariate Analysis 683 instead o
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Multivariate Analysis 687 1.71 1.32
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Multivariate Analysis 689 ‘‘chi
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Multivariate Analysis 691 6, 1, 4.
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Multivariate Analysis 693 Lambros C
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Multivariate Analysis 695 just beca
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698 Appendix A 32179 00597 87379 25
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APPENDIX B Table of Areas under a N
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702 Appendix B (A) (B) (C) (A) (B)
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APPENDIX D Chi-Square Distribution
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APPENDIX E F Table for the .05 Leve
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708 Appendix E F Table for the .01
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APPENDIX F Resources for Fieldworke
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712 References obesity in Saudi Ara
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714 References Beautrais, A. L., P.
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716 References the self-assessment
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718 References Bradburn, N. M. 1983
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720 References ments by considering
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722 References ing in reflected glo
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724 References village. In Self, se
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726 References Duncan, O. D. 1966.
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728 References achieve high respons
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730 References Gatz, M., and M. Hur
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732 References C2KBR/01-1. Washingt
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734 References study of relationshi
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736 References Hornik, J., and S. E
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738 References esses in survey rese
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740 References Kessler, R. C., and
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742 References Laban Moogi Gwako, E
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744 References Lewis, R. B. 2004. N
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746 References McCall, G. 1978. Obs
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748 References Morgan, D. L. 1997.
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750 References Oakhill, J., and A.
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752 References Piliavin, I. M., J.
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754 References nicity-of-interviewe
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756 References Rotton, J., and M. S
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758 References Schwarts, N. A. 2004
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760 References Smith, L. D. 1986. B
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762 References Stricker, L. J. 1988
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764 References pharmacists in HIV/S
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766 References Webb, E. J., D. T. C
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768 References Williams, T. 1996. E
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Subject Index Numbers in italics re
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Subject Index 773 Campos, Alberto,
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Subject Index 775 data analysis, 45
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Subject Index 777 external states,
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Subject Index 779 individual attrib
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Subject Index 781 median, 562, 563-
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Subject Index 783 parsimony, princi
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Subject Index 785 random digit dial
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Subject Index 787 simple scales, 31
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Subject Index 789 T-scores, 591 t-t
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Author Index Numbers in italics ref
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Author Index 793 Choi, N., 33 Choms
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Author Index 795 Gregson, S., 93 Gr
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Author Index 797 Leap, W., 376 LeCo
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Author Index 799 Rashid, R. G., 121
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Author Index 801 Vadez, V., 55, 93
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