Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology

Direct and Indirect Observation 417
TABLE 15.1
Nutritional Behavior of Four Pilagá Indian Children
Yorodaikolik Tanpani Naicho Deniki
Behavior (4 years) (8–9 years) (6 years) (15 months)
Given food 9 7 27 42
Deprived of food 7 0 2 4
Deprivation followed by restitution 1 0 1 2
Attempt made to deprive of food 2 1 1 4
Gives food 8 7 1 3
Withholds food 6 5 2 3
Deprives others of food 2 6 1 0
Attempts to deprive others of food 1 5 0 1
Receives part of a whole 0 1 0 4
Punished while eating 0 0 0 3
Total observations of each child
from which these are taken 190 207 238 208
SOURCE: I. N. Mensh and J. Henry. 1953. Direct Observation and Psychological Tests in Anthropological
Field Work. American Anthropologist 55(4): 466.
hours. Most observations (84%) were conducted within family compounds,
although children were also observed in the streets, town squares, school yards,
fields, and hills. I alternated sampling between the two communities on a weekly
to biweekly basis. A total of 588 observations were conducted, resulting in an
average of approximately 12 observations for each focal child (M 12.25, SD
6.21). On average, each focal child was observed for just over 3 hours (M
3.13 hours, SD 1.39 hours), resulting in a total of 150 hours of observation
time for the entire sample. [It is common in scientific papers to report means and
standard deviations; hence the M and SD figures in this paragraph. HRB]
Focal observations were narrated into a tape recorder carried in a small backpack
or recorded on paper using a shorthand system. I recorded a running commentary
of the behaviors engaged in by the focal child, using behavior elements
defined in the previously developed ethogram. I moved with a focal child in order
to maintain continuous visual contact (Altmann 1974), but did not remain so
close as to interfere with actions or unduly attract the child’s attention. Whenever
a focal child engaged in any type of antagonistic behavior, the specifics of the
interaction were noted, including identity of the interactant(s) and any facial
expressions or gestures. For instance, interactions such as the following were
recorded: Focal boy punches, pushes sister of 3 year old while laughing (sister
does nothing in response). (Fry 1990:326–327)
Fry developed his ethogram of Zapotec children by watching them in public
places before beginning his study of focal individuals. Based on 150 hours of