ancient cities

260 Exclusionary Zoning
an industrial past dominated by a few large firms
will offer a rather different set of opportunities for
small businesses compared to a booming, diverse
postindustrial city. Ethnic entrepreneurs in New
York face a very different opportunity structure
compared to those in Detroit, or in London compared
to Coventry.
The matching between resources of ethnic
entrepreneurs and concrete local institutional
opportunity structures is not a mechanistic, predetermined
process. Entrepreneurs can be highly
reflexive actors seeking and even creating opportunities
while changing their set of resources.
Nevertheless, opportunity structures imply almost
palpable constraints to starting businesses.
The Emergence of a New
Ethnic Entrepreneur
Recently, a relatively new phenomenon has surfaced
as highly skilled migrants from emerging
economies start businesses at the high end of markets
in, for instance, software development, advertising,
or fashion design. The concept of ethnic
entrepreneurship, which once seemed so apt to
describe poor and unskilled members of ethnic
groups pushed toward self-employment, now
appears to be less suitable to include these highflying
entrepreneurs as well. These new ethnic
entrepreneurs bring with them a different set of
resources, and this enables them to target a completely
different part of the opportunity structure.
Their emergence in many advanced urban economies
in different parts of the world seems to have
more in common with their preindustrial diasporic
counterparts than the archetypal ethnic entrepreneur
running a small grocery or café.
Robert C. Kloosterman
See also Chinatowns; Ethnic Enclave; Shopping
Further Readings
Barrett, G. A., T. P. Jones, and D. McEvoy. 2001.
“Socio-economic and Policy Dimensions of the Mixed
Embeddedness of Ethnic Minority Business in
Britain.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
27(2):241–58.
Haller, William J. 2004. Immigrant Entrepreneurship in
Comparative Perspective: Rates, Human Capital
Profiles, and Implications of Immigrant Selfemployment
in Advanced Industrialized Societies.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, Center for
Migration and Development.
Kloosterman, R. and J. Rath. 2003. Immigrant
Entrepreneurs: Venturing Abroad in the Age of
Globalization. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Light, I. and E. Bonacich. 1988. Immigrant
Entrepreneurs: Koreans in Los Angeles 1965–1982.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Light, I. and C. Rosenstein. 1995. Race, Ethnicity, and
Entrepreneurs in Urban America. New York: Aldine
de Gruyter.
Panayiotopoulos, P. 2006. Immigrant Enterprise in
Europe and the USA. London: Routledge.
Rath, J. 2001. “Sewing up Seven Cities.” Pp. 169–193 in
Unravelling the Rag Trade; Immigrant
Entrepreneurship in Seven World Cities, edited by
J. Rath. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Saxenian, A. L. 2006. The New Argonauts: Regional
Advantage in a Global Economy. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Waldinger, R., H. Aldrich, and R. Ward. 1990.
“Opportunities, Group Characteristics, and
Strategies.” Pp. 13–48 in Ethnic Entrepreneurs, edited
by R. Waldinger, H. Aldrich, and R. Ward. London:
Sage.
Zhou, M. 2004. “Revisiting Ethnic Entrepreneurship:
Convergencies, Controversies, and Concepts and
Advancements.” International Migration Review
38(3):1040–74.
Ex C l u s i o n a r y Zo n i n g
Exclusionary zoning refers to land use regulations
that discriminate against some types of people,
especially those with low incomes. Whereas all
zoning exists to exclude specified land uses from
certain areas, exclusionary zoning separates particular
people from certain areas. Exclusionary
zoning works to limit the amount and pace of
residential development, thereby rendering housing
in a local jurisdiction unaffordable for lowincome
residents (and even municipal workers
such as teachers and firefighters). Zoning codes
might also place outright bans on apartment complexes
or other types of affordable housing. In the
United States, where numerous suburban localities
have used exclusionary zoning to stabilize