ancient cities

664 Resort
could be applied to a range of environments using
the concepts of integrated and catalytic types of
resort growth. In both cases, single promoters are
involved but within the catalytic type, the process
of development also becomes strongly related to a
number of secondary developers.
Other attempts to capture the morphology of
resorts include those by Miossec and Gorsem. These
stress a far greater number of variables as well as
being grounded in a wider range of case studies.
Miossec’s model illustrates the temporal and spatial
growth of a resort, postulating that resorts pass
through four main phases of development. Phase 1
sees the establishment of a pioneer resort based on
very limited transport networks and used by tourists
with global perceptions of tourism opportunities.
This is followed in the next phase by a multiplication
of resorts, increased transport linkages, and a greater
awareness of the place. By Phase 3, a resort hierarchy
begins to develop, and some resorts begin to specialize.
Finally, in Phase 4, the resort hierarchy is complete
as is the specialization of functions. Smith later
applied this model to Pattaya, Thailand, and developed
a tentative beach resort model that illustrates
minimal development to full resort development over
time and space.
Gorsem also presents a spatial-evolutionary
model but one that describes resort development
at an international level. This model focuses on
three factors: (1) the nature of holiday accommodation,
(2) levels of local and nonlocal
participation in tourism development, and (3) the
social structure of tourists. The model is framed
in the historical evolution of European tourism
and identifies four main types of resort regions,
which Gorsem terms tourism peripheries. Periphery
1 encompasses Channel and Baltic coast resorts;
Periphery 2, Mediterranean Europe; Periphery 3
the North African coast, and Periphery 4 more
distant resorts in West Africa, the Caribbean,
South America, and the Pacific. Each periphery
passes through a sequence, the early stages of
which are characterized by external development,
wealthy tourists, and mainly hotel accommodation.
Later stages show more local involvement, a
greater diversity of holiday accommodation, and a
wide range of social classes using the resorts.
It is clear that resorts vary in the rate at which
they develop, and it is this difference in particular
that has contributed to increasing concerns regarding
their sustainability. In the Mediterranean,
Swarbrooke, for example, argues that coastal resorts
epitomize the worst aspects of development. The reasons
for this relate to negative environment (e.g.,
inappropriate development that is out of keeping
with local conditions, disturbance of habitats and
species, and pollution), economic (e.g., inflation,
economic leakage, and higher land prices), and
sociocultural impacts (e.g., loss of cultural traditions
and social change). Alpine development has
also been associated with similar negative environmental,
economic, and sociocultural impacts, as
have rural resorts. More recently, the sustainability
of all-inclusive resorts has been heavily criticized.
This is because few benefits accrue to local economies
and host communities because they are often
foreign owned, and tourists rarely stray outside of
the resort confines unless on organized excursions.
Finally, the economic fortunes of resorts drastically
differ. Many coastal resorts, particularly in the
United Kingdom, are experiencing economic, social,
and environmental difficulties as discussed by
Agarwal and Brunt. However, it also appears that
the fortunes of some Spanish resorts are also flagging,
as noted by Priestley and Llurdes, as are some
alpine resorts, particularly those situated at low altitudes
due to climate change and the uncertainty of
snowfall. But it is important to note that there is spatial
variation in their economic performance with
some performing extremely well and others less so.
See also Mediterranean Cities; Tourism
Further Readings
Sheela Agarwal
Agarwal, S. and P. Brunt. 2006. “Social Exclusion and
English Seaside Resorts.” Tourism Management
27:654–70.
Agarwal, S. and G. Shaw. 2007. Managing Coastal
Tourism Resorts: A Global Perspective. Clevedon,
UK: Channel View.
Barbaza, Y. 1970. “Trois types d’intervention du
tourisme dans l’organisation de l’espace littoral.”
Annales de Geographie 434:446–69.
Gilbert, E. W. 1939. “The Growth of Inland and Seaside
Health Resorts in England.” Scottish Geographical
Magazine 55(1):16–35.
Gorsem, E. 1981. The Spatio-temporal Development of
International Tourism: Attempt at a Centre-periphery
Model. Aix-en-Provence: CHET.
Miossec, J. M. 1976. “Elements pour une theorie de
l’espace touristique.” Les Cahiers du Tourisme C-36.