ancient cities

318 Globalization
Some cities have appointed representatives to foreign
nations to pursue inward investment or market
local products. Other cities have declared
themselves to be “nuclear free zones”; while still
others have taken steps to welcome immigrants.
The term glocalization has come to denote the
growing impact of global forces on local decision
making.
Cities now operate in a borderless world in
which they search for capital markets, political
influence, or wider recognition. These “glocal cities”
have drifted from their national moorings.
London, Tokyo, Mumbai, and New York are
already larger than some nation-states and play a
role on the world stage. London’s economy would
rank as the ninth-largest in all of Europe, surpassing
entire national economies of countries like
Austria, Greece, and Portugal.
The advent of globalization has brought
increased foreign immigration and international
tourism to many cities. Most of the immigration
moves from the underdeveloped world to cities
with the most advanced economies. By 2000, more
than 50 percent of the population in New York
and Toronto were classified as ethnic minorities or
foreign born. In London, the percentage of foreign
residents has risen to 29 percent, while in Paris, the
percentage is above 15 percent. Many immigrants
take lower-paying jobs cleaning offices and hotel
rooms or working as day laborers in construction.
At times, the presence of large immigrant populations
has bred violence, xenophobia, and social
tensions. Youth whose parents were born in North
Africa rioted in the Paris suburbs; cultural tensions
have erupted between immigrants and native residents
in Amsterdam and Brussels; and attacks
against immigrants from the Caucasus mountains
are common in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Another aspect of globalization involves a substantial
increase in international tourism. More
than 6 million international tourists on average
visit New York annually, and the figures for Paris
and London are even higher, reaching 15 million
and more than 11 million, respectively. Tourism is
a major urban industry involving massive flows of
people across continents. It has become a major
agent of change and one of the most visible expressions
of globalization. Cities have become centers
of consumption, entertainment, culture, and services
to accommodate this industry by investing in
infrastructure, construction of airports, mass transportation
systems, and urban amenities.
While cities such as New York, London, and
Tokyo have large financial resources, global connections,
and substantial opportunities, other cities
located in less developed economies have been
unable to establish diversified economies or generate
a substantial tertiary sector. For leading cities
(New York, London, Tokyo) or those quick to
adapt (Singapore, Bangkok, and Shanghai), globalization
has been a blessing and a key for transforming
their industrial base. For less fortunate
regions, the capacity for converting local resources
into an export sector has limited their interaction
with the global economy. Cities like Lagos, Dar es
Salaam, and Cairo have increased in population
but have not been able to boost their economies to
supply their swelling populations. In many other
cities, a paucity of affordable housing and discriminatory
practices force newcomer immigrants
to live in spatially segregated ghettos. Growth
without development continues to hinder cities in
many parts of the world.
One might suppose that globalization makes
cities less important or more alike as they are
swept into a common world of economic competition
and social interchange. Presumably, people
could be located anywhere and conduct business
via the Internet from a mountaintop retreat. In
fact, the opposite is true—at least for some cities.
A knowledge-based economy has accelerated faceto-face
and informal contacts. In addition, businesses
search for that extra advantage that comes
from personal contact.
Cities in strategic locations, such as Singapore,
have successfully used international opportunities
to shed heavy industries and switch their economies
to accommodate financial centers, corporate
directorships, and other professional services. Less
fortunate cities, mostly in Africa, have lost industries
and been unable to attract emerging economic
sectors. Globalization has had differential impacts
on cities, and not all cities share the same fate.
Thanks to globalization, cities like New York,
London, and Paris have become switching stations
where many global transactions take place. London,
for instance, has emerged as a banking center
where capital is concentrated, New York as a producer
of financial instruments where loans and
mergers are consummated, and Paris as a seat for