ancient cities

evident within society. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
continue to have resonance for modern
urban societies so that in a modern Gesellschaft
world, Gemeinschaft-like relations persist, but with
diminishing strength, to remain a reality of social
life. In Tönnies’s pursuit of the ideal type, he was
concerned with retaining stronger Gemeinschaft
relations in the new world order.
Pre- and Postindustrial Society
The desire for the profitable use of money prevailed
during seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
Europe in the mercantile age. Major social change
was brought about by the development of largescale
trade, technological changes, and the advent
of capitalism. Further major changes were occurring
within society in relation to science, religion,
and the role of the nation-state in an era that is
known today as the Age of Enlightenment. During
this time, reason and scientific inquiry took precedence
over irrationality and superstition.
These transformations had a direct impact on
rural areas, which faced decline as people left the
land and moved to industrial centers. In parallel
with this shift, the supremacy of the ruling aristocracy
was eroded due to the declining role of land
within society. Consequently, the old ideologies of
agrarian society were gradually swept away with
the dawn of the capitalist age. Meanwhile, industrial
society witnessed the rise of city and metropolitan
areas. Central to this change was the shift
from a predominantly closed community, where
common interests are pursued for the greater
good, to a more heterogeneous society, where individuals
pursue their own interests. In the new
world order, society is governed by a remote state
rather than one that is structured around the
locale. Protection of individuals and their physical
and intellectual property and freedom form key
roles for the state. The centrality of these issues (of
individual freedoms, social relations, and state
governance) implies that the original theory is germane
to studies of society today.
Relations Within Society
Ties through blood and marriage comprise
Gemeinschaft relations so that kinship bonds form
the central unit, but friendships and neighborly
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
297
connections are also important. Relations are perceived
to be personal, familiar, strong, and closeknit.
Levels of trust and reciprocity are high. These
relations prevail within rural settlements, be they
towns or villages. Moreover, society is intimately
connected to the land. Those who work the land
earn a living and derive pleasure from this task.
Traditional values and customary practices abound
within social relations, which as a result are
described as organic and natural. In other words,
they are genuine inasmuch as they are instinctive
and have emerged from within the community,
rather than resulting from enforced relations.
These are manifest in relations within the family;
among man, woman, and child.
By contrast, in the Gesellschaft of the capitalist
society there is no shared set of social norms or
collective history. Set in a city environment, individuals
develop relations as a result of economic
transactions; they seek to exchange merchandise
or services to further their own self-interest.
Relations are impersonal, artificial, perfunctory,
loose, and superficial. As a result, individuals are
cut off from nature, and they experience isolation
from one another and from their community.
In the Gemeinschaft, it is proposed that women
are driven by conscience and sentiment, whereas
men are driven by calculation and effort. Although
Tönnies contends that these merely represent different
types of individuals within a society, the
gendered nature of the analysis is apparent. It suggests
that women tend to develop natural relations,
such as the deep, instinctive mother–child connection.
These relations are superior to those of their
male counterparts, which are artificial and authoritarian.
In the utopian society, relations would be
more akin to those found among women in the
Gemeinschaft.
Government and Individual Will
Society is underpinned by the human will, specifically
Wesenwille and Kurwille. Although intellect and reason
pervade both, the former is associated with
Gemeinschaft and refers to the will that is natural and
innate within the individual. It represents the traditional
and unchanging essence of the community.
Choices are made instinctively on the basis of habit
and custom, for the greater good of the community.
Relationships are formed for their intrinsic value.