ancient cities

758 Spaces of Difference
these areas are developed out of exclusion from
other urban residential locations, but they can
quickly become the only areas where many feel
secure. This security stems from these social identities
and allows people the ability to retain parts
of their beliefs and identity construction without
complete assimilation into other cultural practices.
This type of bounded space, however, can
make these groups targets of hate crimes when
tensions are at a peak. For example, the East End
of London has traditionally been, and is still
today, a revolving door for immigrant populations,
whether they arrive as refugees, asylum
seekers, or those looking for employment opportunities.
Because of this history, the East End is a
target for hate crimes. Another example is the
numerous Chinatowns that have been created in
cities around the world. While originally these
were the areas where Chinese immigrants could
settle, Chinatowns have flourished into “exotic”
cultural spaces for tourism and business enterprises.
While these areas create ethnic enclaves,
religious spaces are even more clearly demarcated
within the urban fabric. The locations of churches,
mosques, and temples sharply delineate spaces of
difference, offering a place to practice and maintain
spiritual beliefs. These religious locations are
symbolic spaces that reify social identity. Kevin
Hetherington affirms that shared and collective
identity through social processes of neighborhoods
reaffirms notions of individual identity.
This then stresses the importance ethnic and religious
urban neighborhoods have in maintaining a
sense of self—in many cases by separating self
from the other.
Sexual Identity and Queer Theory
Sexual identity is a powerful force in defining individual
identity and actions. Generally, urban climates
do not actively promote gay lifestyles, but
often spaces are created within the urban realm to
support them. Areas where gay and lesbian social
interactions take place are often fringe areas—
deindustrialized warehouse spaces, hidden clubs
off alleyways of business districts, or locations in
poor neighborhoods. “Nicer” areas openly supporting
gay and lesbian lifestyles are likely exceptions
to the rule. Urban areas offer more avenues
for social interaction and expression of sexual
identities outside of heteronormative practices.
Gill Valentine has illustrated how urban environments
can work both to help create and support
gay and lesbian culture by being more liberal and
open than rural areas but can also become spaces
of homophobia and antigay violence. Urban environments
reinforce notions of heteronormativity.
Walking down the street, being stuck in traffic,
going to the movies, dining at a restaurant, and
shopping are heteronormative actions that are
taken for granted and often not noticed by passers-by.
Heterosexual couples holding hands, kissing,
and cuddling go constantly unnoticed or
quickly dismissed. Homosexual couples practicing
the same actions of intimacy become automatic
targets for intolerance. Queer theory has been an
active voice in bringing to light how urban environments
are important places for the practice of
shared sexual identities and sociability.
Appropriate Use and Deviance
Spaces of difference support dominant notions of
proper expression and livelihood practices. Don
Mitchell and Tim Cresswell have been prominent
voices in how these dominant notions create deviance
with concerns to marginalized groups and
activities, especially homelessness and graffiti.
Homelessness and graffiti are said to be practices
that plague cities and can cause economic downfall
if not dealt with by city governments. City ordinances
have been constructed to keep the homeless
out of urban public spaces through antiloitering
laws. Especially in times of a city’s involvement in
international events, such as the Olympics or
Commonwealth Games, the homeless are often
physically removed from the streets and placed
into, often temporarily constructed, shelters.
Homelessness is a deviant and transgressing act in
urban environments, constructed as a problem for
safety and a burden on taxpayers for shelter,
medical care, and food supplies. Graffiti is another
deviant activity prevalent in urban space. Graffiti
is often seen as acts of vandalism, committed by
delinquent youth, requiring erasure and legislation
if in high traffic tourist and market areas. Yet,
graffiti often exists as part of the everyday landscape
of peripheral urban neighborhoods. These
are border areas where immigrants and lower-class
populations usually reside, where graffiti is in