ancient cities

on the existing urban structure. Finally, the social
sciences (psychology, anthropology, sociology) are
primarily interested in the relationship between
shopping centers and behavior and identity formation,
often making liberal use of concepts borrowed
from postmodernist philosophy.
To provide a description of the phenomenon of
shopping centers and their implications for the
built environment, this contribution will first provide
a classification of planned shopping centers,
mentioning some of the differences in terminology
used where appropriate, particularly between the
United States and Britain where the writing on
shopping centers is most abundant. Next, these
types will be contextualized in time by providing a
short chronology of shopping center development.
Finally, a number of contemporary issues will be
mentioned for further reading, such as the impact
of shopping centers on the urban structure and
modern society and the implications this may hold
for the future.
A Taxonomy of Shopping Centers
A common misconception is that all shopping centers
are essentially the same. This view is generally
linked to the déjà vu that accompanies visiting a
particular center whose layout, materials, and even
tenants are unnervingly similar to other centers—
even if they happen to be on the other side of the
globe. Indeed, when looking for distinguishing
features for shopping centers, the location within a
particular country or a particular city is less important,
or in some cases practically negligible, than
other factors. These factors include the physical
size and morphology, its orientation in terms of
purpose (grocery shopping, comparison shopping,
or leisure shopping), market niche (discount, luxury),
and its position in the urban fabric (urban
center, out-of-town).
One distinguishing feature is physical shape.
Shopping centers are comprised of either a collection
of buildings or a single building. In the first
category are centers where a number of individual
one-story retail outlets share a parking lot. Because
these types are usually offset from a commercial
road or strip, they are commonly called strip malls
(U.S. terminology). According to the International
Council of Shopping Centers, the smallest of
multiple-building centers focus on daily goods
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(strip or convenience centers, depending on the
configuration); larger centers (30,000- to 150,000square-feet
total shop floor space) carrying the
same kinds of goods are called neighborhood centers.
These are usually situated on (former) commercial
roads in residential areas and may have a
supermarket as its most important attractor, or
anchor in retail jargon. Community centers
(between 100,000 and 350,000 square feet) offer a
slightly wider assortment of goods, such as office
supplies, home improvement items, and furniture
and are often anchored by a superstore (or “category
killer” [United States] specializing in one
particular kind of merchandise, like shoes or toys)
or a hypermarket (which offers a wide range of
merchandise [United Kingdom and France]). When
the emphasis is on bargains, these centers may be
called discount centers, or lifestyle centers when the
emphasis is on leisure shopping. In both cases, the
morphology remains, for all intents and purposes,
the same. The very largest shopping centers of this
kind are called power centers (United States, Canada)
and comprise multiple big-box stores, strips, and
parking lots. As these serve a large market area,
they are usually located at well-accessible edgeof-town
or out-of-town locations.
The other kind of shopping center is essentially
a single structure that is planned, developed,
owned, and managed as a unit. In this case, retailers
pay rent to an owner or manager responsible
for collective goods such as parking, security, sanitation,
upkeep, and marketing. This is far from a
new concept: enclosed markets and bazaars (e.g.,
in Tehran and Istanbul) date back to the Middle
Ages. The nineteenth century saw the advent of the
arcade or galleria, which was a pedestrianized
shopping street covered by a glass ceiling. In its
archetypical modern form, a shopping mall is comprised
of two anchors (usually major department
stores) linked by a galleria; this basic layout is
adapted as the number of anchors increases, but
the principle generally remains the same. Most
malls include a centrally located food court consisting
of various fast-food restaurants to entice
visitors to lengthen their stay. In terms of merchandise,
malls focus on leisure-oriented goods like
fashion; rarely do they include grocery shopping.
Malls that reach sizes of approximately 400,000 to
800,000 square feet are usually multistory and
referred to as regional centers. Even larger malls