ancient cities

826 Transportation
Growth in automobile ownership and usage has
been closely connected with shifting patterns of
transportation infrastructure investment and land
use development. To accommodate car use, limited
access motorways were constructed to provide
direct access into a growing number of city centers.
As highways expanded further into the hinterland
of cities, they catalyzed the development of lowerdensity
housing and commercial developments.
Peripheral areas now became accessible and
affordable for a larger share of the population.
Suburbanization was under way.
The spread of residential development and
employment into increasingly dispersed locations
adjacent to highway interchanges solidified the
supremacy of the automobile over other alternative
modes of transportation, such as walking,
cycling, and public transit. Trucks also began to
gain in prominence as a key mode of goods movement
between and within cities.
Backlash to the Automobile
In the mid-1960s, despite the many benefits that
the automobile provided in terms of personal convenience
and its foundation for a high material
quality of life, the costs of excess car usage and of
a planning framework geared toward supporting
the automobile became a public concern. City
dwellers who lacked access to automobiles or were
unable to drive, including the poor, the young, some
elderly people, and the physically disabled, increasingly
faced difficulties accessing employment and
recreational activities as well as public services such
as medical clinics and day care facilities.
Road congestion was dampening economic
productivity and efficiency. In many cities, as car
usage increased, road transportation became one
of the largest sources of localized air pollution,
leading to a rise in respiratory illnesses. Traffic
accidents were claiming a growing number of
fatalities and injuries. Dependence on foreign oil
became common in the many countries that do
not produce an ample supply domestically. This
vulnerability was highlighted in 1973 by the
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) oil shock, which sent fuel costs skyrocketing
and crippled economies around the world.
Finally, there was growing concern about the
degree to which highway construction was
destroying the stability and vitality of communities
through which they passed, primarily in the
urban core. In cities across North America such
as New York, San Francisco, Toronto, and
Vancouver, local protest movements emerged to
combat a spate of proposals for new inner-city
highways. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the
tide had shifted against major inner-city projects,
and many proposals were halted or truncated.
Return to the Rails
The response to the experience with building
urban freeways was a renewed interest in public
transit, particularly large rail projects. In the
1970s, 23 new subway systems were built worldwide,
13 outside of Western Europe and North
America, while only five light-rail systems were
constructed. Between 1980 and 2000, by contrast,
some 70 surface-running light-rail lines were built
compared with 38 subways, with most projects
still being constructed in jurisdictions outside of
Western Europe and North America. The majority
of these rail lines were publicly planned, financed,
and operated and integrated into larger regional
transit networks.
The renewed interest in urban rail projects was
linked to efforts to stem the low-density, car-
oriented land use development that was occurring
at the periphery of cities. The goal was to catalyze
the construction of more compact communities
around transit facilities. Encouraging communities
with a mix of residential, employment, and
recreational facilities adjacent to transit facilities
would limit the need for long-distance commuting
and make transit and nonmotorized modes of
transportation viable travel options. The earlier
challenges posed by the overdependence on the
automobile, including road congestion, environmental
degradation, and social exclusion, would
be redressed. Beyond the movement of people, rail
projects also gained symbolic resonance as progressive
investments that demonstrated visionary
leadership to support urban sustainability.
Balanced Transportation: Mega Projects
Despite the investment in urban rail lines in a
growing number of jurisdictions, between 1980
and 2000, public budgets for transit came under