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Untypical patterns in translations 105 not able to tell much about the strength of co-occurrence between target word and its collocates. Another approach, namely tests for statistical significance that are based on observed and expected frequencies, can be used instead to measure the strength of association. Although statistical tests (see e.g. Stubbs 1995; Barnbrook 1996) or the whole statistical approach (Kenny 2001) include problems of their own, they are widely used in corpus linguistics to distinguish collocations that exist by chance from those whose co-occurrence is statistically significant. The statistical procedure used in this study is explained in more detail later in this chapter. In its narrowest sense, collocation recognises only the lexical associations of nodes (Sinclair 1991:170). However, the same kind of co-occurrences exist between node words and grammatical classes. These grammatical collocations are recognized as colligations. Colligations have, however, originally been defined as interrelations of grammatical categories, which thus concern categories such as word classes and sentence classes (Firth 1968: 181; see also Tognini Bonelli 1996:74). In present-day corpus linguistics, however, colligation is understood to mean an association of a word, “seen as a unique lexical item rather than as a member of its class” (Tognini Bonelli ibid.), with grammatical categories (Hoey 1997:8; Sinclair 1998:15) or with a particular position in a sentence or text (Hoey ibid.; Kennedy 1991 2 ). Both the contextual structures mentioned here (collocations and colligations) are crucial in the analysis of word meaning. As Carter puts it, meaning consists of several kinds of inter-relationships: – the meaning of a ‘word’ cannot really be adequately given without the fullest possible information concerning the place the word occupies and the contrasts it develops within a network of differential relations which includes patterns and ranges and the syntactic patterns which operate within particular ranges. (Carter 1987:56) 3 Corpus-based analysis of lexical or grammatical patterns suits particularly well the description of the use of nearly synonymous words (Biber et al. 1998). So far, however, corpus-based methods have not been widely used for this purpose. A few studies, though, are available. In their corpus-based presentation of language structure and use, Biber, Conrad and Reppen (ibid.) clarify the systematic differences in some groups of synonymous words. For example, nearly synonymous adjectives big, large and great have clearly different collocational association patterns in academic prose: big collocates most commonly with enough, large with number and great with deal. In another example, the synonymous verbs start and begin are studied, and a similar tendency is observed: start is more commonly used as an intransitive verb (Blood loss started about the
106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day of infection ...),whilebegin is used as a transitive verb (Then I began to laugh a bit.) In a study by Jantunen (2001b), Finnish adjectives tärkeä and keskeinen (both having a central semantic trait of ‘important’) show clearly different collocational and colligational association patterns. For instance, of the collocates that precede tärkeä (‘important’), degree modifiers account for 11 per cent, but in the case of keskeinen (‘important, central’), the proportion is only 3 per cent, to name but a few findings of the contextual associations. 4 The analyses listed here clearly show that the contextually dependent use of near-synonyms seems to differentiate them from each other. 3. Methodology and data of the present study 3.1 Three-Phase Comparative Analysis (TPCA): a corpus-based method for investigating the impact of a source language in translations The data for analysis consist of the Finnish Comparable Corpus of Fiction (FCCF), which is a subset of the Corpus of Translated Finnish (CTF) compiled at Savonlinna School of <strong>Translation</strong> Studies (for CTF, see Mauranen 2000; this volume). In translation studies, comparable corpus refers to a corpus which consists of subcorpora of both translated and non-translated texts (Baker 1995). The comparability usually means that texts are comparable in terms of genre, time of publication and possibly also in terms of text type and text length. The FCCF is composed of three subcorpora: (1) a corpus of non-translated Finnish (CNF), (2) a multi-source-language corpus of translated Finnish (MuCTF) and (3) a mono-source-language corpus of translated Finnish (MoCTF). The source languages in the MuCTF are: Indo- European languages like Dutch, English, French, German, Norwegian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish and Finno-Ugric languages like Estonian and Hungarian. For the source language in the MoCTF, I have selected English, which is an obvious choice for the reason that contemporary translations into Finnish are predominantly from English. 5 The subcorpora of FCCF contain 0.8–1.0 million tokens each, which makes a total of 2.9 million tokens. Texts included in the data are full texts, and their total number is 50. They were published in 1995 or later, which means that they represent contemporary Finnish. As the name of the corpus indicates, the genre included in the corpus is fiction. Fiction is chosen because texts other than those of narrative fiction are rarely translated into Finnish from languages other than English. Fiction was then an obvious choice to
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Translation Universals
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Translation Universals Do they exis
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Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
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Introduction The search for univers
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Introduction 3 the main methodologi
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Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
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Introduction 7 of several frequent
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Introduction 9 For many, the term u
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Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
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Probabilistic explanations in trans
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Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
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Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
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Beyond the particular 37 characteri
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Beyond the particular 39 Contributi
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Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
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Beyond the particular 43 representa
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Beyond the particular 45 or unclear
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Beyond the particular 47 What we ne
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Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
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52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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Page 72 and 73: Corpora, universals and interferenc
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Page 125 and 126: 118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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Page 136 and 137: Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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Page 151 and 152: 144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
Page 153 and 154: 146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
Page 155 and 156: 148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
Page 157 and 158: 150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
Page 159 and 160: 152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
Page 161 and 162: 154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
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156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
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158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
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160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
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162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
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164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
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166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
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168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
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172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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