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Beyond the particular 39 Contribution: awareness of ethical issues. Another contribution worth mentioning is the way in which critics such as Berman foreground issues concerning ethnocentrism and more generally the representation of the Other. This helps us to see the wider philosophical context in which translation takes place, and has fuelled quite a bit of later research on translation ethics (see the special issue of The Translator 7 (1), 2001). 4. The descriptive route The third route away from the particular is represented by recent corpus-based work on what some call translation universals. One of the origins of such work has been Frawley’s notion (1984) of translations as constituting a third code, distinct from the source-language and target-language codes. Another origin has been hypotheses like that of Blum-Kulka (1986) on explicitation, and yet another has been Toury’s (1995) proposals about translation laws. We should also mention the background of work in linguistics on language universals, and in sociolinguistics on language variation. Progress along this descriptive route seems to be moving along two roads simultaneously: the high road and the low road. On the high road, we find claims that indeed purport to cover all translations, and so they can fairly be said to be claims about universal features. These claims fall into two classes, corresponding to the two contrastive textlinguistic relations that form the core of linguistic research on translation: the equivalence relation with the source text, and the relation of textual fit with comparable non-translated texts in the target language. In other words, use is made of two different reference corpora. Some hypotheses claim to capture universal differences between translations and their source texts, i.e. characteristics of the way in which translators process the source text; I call these S-universals (S for source). Others make claims about universal differences between translations and comparable non-translated texts, i.e. characteristics of the way translators use the target language; I call these T-universals (T for target). T-universals are the descriptive equivalent to the criticisms of unnaturalness, of translationese, made in the pejorative approach. Below are some examples of both types of proposed universals. Note that these claims are hypotheses only; some have been corroborated more than others, and some tests have produced contrary evidence, so in most cases the jury is still out.
40 Andrew Chesterman Potential S-universals – Lengthening: translations tend to be longer than their source texts (cf. Berman’s expansion; also Vinay & Darbelnet 1958:185; et al.) – The law of interference (Toury 1995) – The law of standardization (Toury 1995) – Dialect normalization (Englund Dimitrova 1997) – Reduction of complex narrative voices (Taivalkoski 2002) – The explicitation hypothesis (Blum-Kulka 1986, Klaudy 1996, Øverås 1998) (e.g. there is more cohesion in translations) – Sanitization (Kenny 1998) (more conventional collocations) – The retranslation hypothesis (later translations tend to be closer to the source text; see Palimpsestes 4, 1990) – Reduction of repetition (Baker 1993) Potential T-universals – Simplification (Laviosa-Braithwaite 1996) Less lexical variety Lower lexical density More use of high-frequency items – Conventionalization (Baker 1993) – Untypical lexical patterning (and less stable) (Mauranen 2000) – Under-representation of TL-specific items (Tirkkonen-Condit 2000) Research then proceeds by operationalizing these general claims, i.e. interpreting them in concrete terms, and then testing them on various kinds of data in order to see how universal they actually are. Do they, for instance, apply to some subset of all translations rather than the total set? This leads us to consider the second direction pursued by modern descriptive research, the low road. Here, research moves in more modest steps, generalizing more gradually away from particular cases towards claims applying to a group of cases, then perhaps to a wider group, and so on. The movement is bottom-up (starting with the particular) rather than top-down (starting with the general). True, a universal hypothesis might also be tentatively proposed on the basis of empirical results pertaining only to a subset. Subset generalizations fall into the same two classes as the universal claims mentioned above: claims about the source/target relation, and claims about the translated/non-translated relation.
Page 2 and 3: Translation Universals
Page 4 and 5: Translation Universals Do they exis
Page 6 and 7: Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
Page 8 and 9: Introduction The search for univers
Page 10 and 11: Introduction 3 the main methodologi
Page 12 and 13: Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
Page 14 and 15: Introduction 7 of several frequent
Page 16 and 17: Introduction 9 For many, the term u
Page 18: Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
Page 22 and 23: Probabilistic explanations in trans
Page 40 and 41: Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
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Page 44 and 45: Beyond the particular 37 characteri
Page 48 and 49: Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
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Page 56: Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
Page 59 and 60: 52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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Untypical frequencies in translated
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102 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen (
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104 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 2.2 Lexica
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106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day
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108 Jarmo Harri Jantunen second pha
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110 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Figure 2.
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112 Jarmo Harri Jantunen synonymous
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114 Jarmo Harri Jantunen items comp
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116 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 4. T
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118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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120 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 7. T
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122 Jarmo Harri Jantunen However, t
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124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The bo
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126 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen,
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Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
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146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
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148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
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150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
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152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
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154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
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156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
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158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
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160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
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162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
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164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
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166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
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168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
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172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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