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When is a universal not a universal? Some limits of current corpus-based methodologies for the investigation of translation universals Silvia Bernardini and Federico Zanettin University of Bologna / University for Foreigners of Perugia This paper raises a number of concerns relating to the notion of universality in translation and to the methodology adopted in the search for translation “universals”. The term itself, it is suggested, may be misleading if applied to corpus-based research, where the emphasis should be first on the relations between translated texts and the socio-cultural constraints under which they were produced and then on the cognitive processes underlying translation activities. Taking examples from the CEXI corpus, a parallel bi-directional corpus of English and Italian currently under construction, the paper illustrates the working of some such constraints on corpus design. With reference to non-fiction texts, it shows how two different cultures (Italy vs. the U.S.) reciprocally select for translation texts belonging to different textual typologies, resulting in the possibility of skewed distributions within comparable corpora. Similarly, with reference to fiction texts, it shows how Italian texts translated into English tend to be canonical high-brow ones, whilst this is not the case with English texts translated into Italian. We suggest that the effect of such contextual variables over translation strategies and norms should not be neglected in translation research. One suggestion in this direction is to set up corpus resources so as to allow multiple comparisons across subcorpora, such that each component can be used as a control for the mirror one. 1. Introduction: universals and DTS The current fascination with universals in (corpus-based) descriptive translation studies (DTS) may appear somewhat surprising. A research methodology with a double lineage, corpus-based DTS has inherited the Firthian/Hymesian
52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Zanettin views of linguistics as the study of language in use underlying corpus linguistics, as well as DTS views of translation research as the target-oriented, situationally-constrained study of translation practices: [...] a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences, not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. (Hymes 1972:277) Throughout the period of growth we are progressively incorporated into our social organization, and the chief condition and means of that incorporation is learning to say what the other fellow expects us to say under given circumstances. [. . .] Most of the give-and-take of conversation in our everyday life is stereotyped and very narrowly conditioned by our particular type of culture. (Firth 1935:67, 69) ‘translatorship’ amounts first and foremost to being able to play a social role, i.e. to fulfil a function allotted by a community [. . .] in a way which is deemed appropriate in its own terms of reference. (Toury 1995: 53) Quests for “universals” – cognitively-basic, situationally-unconstrained theoretical constructs which lie at the basis of generative/typological approaches to linguistics – would appear to be at odds with the very premises of this approach. Although use of the term universal in DTS is generally qualified and accuratelyglossedtopointoutthatinfactitisageneraltendency,orwidespread norm, that is postulated, rather than an absolute truth, it is nevertheless true that at least half a century of linguistic research and theorization is attached to the term “universal”, and this can hardly be swept under the carpet. Accordingly, in this paper we shall attempt to steer clear of controversial notions of universality, and aim, in more down-to-earth manner, to shed light on (some) interrelations between parameters of situational and cultural variation and patterns of linguistic usage as observable “in an adequate corpus inscriptionum” (Firth 1956: 106). Our major concern here is that of evaluating the adequacy of a corpus in the quest for norms and laws of translational behaviour (Toury 1995:259–279), as a first, largely methodological step in preparation for more ambitious quests. We prefer the notion of law (as formulated by Toury: if X, then the greater/the lesser the likelihood that Y [1995:256]) to that of universal, insofar as laws may be proposed that describe widely – and even universally – followed norms. Unlike universals, however, laws in social science are subject to conditioning factors of various kinds, and as such would appear to be much more
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Translation Universals
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Translation Universals Do they exis
Page 6 and 7: Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
Page 8 and 9: Introduction The search for univers
Page 10 and 11: Introduction 3 the main methodologi
Page 12 and 13: Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
Page 14 and 15: Introduction 7 of several frequent
Page 16 and 17: Introduction 9 For many, the term u
Page 18: Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
Page 22 and 23: Probabilistic explanations in trans
Page 40 and 41: Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
Page 42 and 43: Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
Page 44 and 45: Beyond the particular 37 characteri
Page 46 and 47: Beyond the particular 39 Contributi
Page 48 and 49: Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
Page 50 and 51: Beyond the particular 43 representa
Page 52 and 53: Beyond the particular 45 or unclear
Page 54 and 55: Beyond the particular 47 What we ne
Page 56: Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
Page 61 and 62: 54 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
Page 72 and 73: Corpora, universals and interferenc
Page 90 and 91: Untypical frequencies in translated
Page 106: Untypical frequencies in translated
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102 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen (
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104 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 2.2 Lexica
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106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day
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108 Jarmo Harri Jantunen second pha
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110 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Figure 2.
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112 Jarmo Harri Jantunen synonymous
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114 Jarmo Harri Jantunen items comp
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116 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 4. T
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118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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120 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 7. T
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122 Jarmo Harri Jantunen However, t
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124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The bo
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126 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen,
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Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
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146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
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148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
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150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
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152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
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154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
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156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
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158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
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160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
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162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
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164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
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166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
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168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
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172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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