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Introduction 9 For many, the term universal is perhaps too radical, too abrupt, too absolute. Such objections may result in a general preference for another term, such as ‘regularity’, ‘law’, or ‘tendency’, depending on how far we dare to tread. We may ask for example to what extent the postulation of universals is restraining our focus on mainstream, prototypical translation in contemporary developed world to the exclusion on more marginal and historical translation practices. Given that the accumulated evidence is still scarce, it is impossible to tell how general we can get in our descriptions – without ending up with truisms such as ‘all translations involve two linguistic codes’ or other general statements which follow from the definition of translation. Disputes about such uninformative top-level generalisations would then boil down to controversies about definitions of translations. Clearly, our theoretical framework largely determines our possibilities of seeing the object, thus we cannot naively wait for the evidence to accumulate until there is enough to resolve the issues. Yet by making strong claims in the field, and by imposing strong frameworks on our data, we stand a chance of seeing the limits of a new approach, as well as its strengths. We hope that this volume makes a contribution to the search for generalities in translation studies, the methodological solutions available, and the emerging evidence on the kinds of generalities that research on a larger scale than before is bringing forth, enabling us to fine-tune, modify, and question earlier hypotheses. On a more practical but no less important level, the applicability of the hypotheses and findings to translator education is always a concern for translation studies. References Baker, Mona (1993). Corpus linguistics and translation studies – Implications and applications. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text and Technology. In Honour of John Sinclair (pp. 233–250). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Baker, Mona (2001). Patterns of idiomaticity in translated vs. original English. Paper given at the Third EST Congress Translation Studies: Claims, Changes and Challenges, August 30 – Sept.1, 2001, Copenhagen. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana (1986). Shifts of cohesion and coherence in translation. In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies (pp. 17–35). Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, & Levenston, Eddie A. (1983). Universals of lexical simplification. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 119–139). London/New York: Longman. Chesterman, Andrew (1998). Causes, translations, effects. Target, 10 (2), 201–230.
10 Introduction Chesterman, Andrew (2000). A causal model for Translation Studies. In M. Olohan (Ed.), Intercultural Faultlines. Research Models in Translation Studies I. Textual and Cognitive Aspects (pp. 15–27). Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Chesterman, Andrew (2001). Classifying translation universals. Paper given at the Third EST Congress Translation Studies: Claims, Changes and Challenges, August 30 – Sept.1, 2001, Copenhagen. Comrie, Bernard (2003). On explaining language universals. In M. Tomasello (Ed.), The New Psychology of Language. Vol. 2 (pp. 195–209). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Frawley, William (1984). Prolegomenon to a theory of translation. In W. Frawley (Ed.), Translation. Literary, Linguistic and Philosophical Perspectives (pp. 159–175). Newark: University of Delaware Press. Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). Universals of Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge, Mass. The MIT Press. Klaudy, Kinga (2001). The asymmetry hypothesis. Testing the asymmetric relationship between explicitations and implicitations. Paper given at the Third EST Congress Translation Studies: Claims, Changes and Challenges, August 30 – Sept.1, 2001, Copenhagen. Laviosa-Braithwaite, Sara (1996). The English Comparable Corpus (ECC): A Resource and a Methodology for the Empirical Study of Translation. Unpublished PhD thesis. UMIST, Department of Language Engineering. Mauranen, Anna (2000). Strange Strings in Translated Language: A Study on Corpora. In M. Olohan (Ed.), Intercultural Faultlines. Research Models in Translation Studies 1: Textual and Cognitive Aspects (pp. 119–141). Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Mauranen, Anna (this volume). Corpora, Universals and Interference. In A. Mauranen & P. Kujamäki (Eds.), Translation Universals – Do They Exist? Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Paloposki, Outi (2002). Variation in Translation. Literary Translation into Finnish 1809–1850. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Helsinki. Schäffner, Christina, & Adab, Beverly (2001). The idea of the hybrid text in translation: Contact as conflict. Across Languages and Cultures. Special issue on Hybrid Texts and Translation. C. Schäffner & B. Adab (guest Eds.), 167–180. Shlesinger, Miriam (1991). Interpreter latitude vs. due process. Simultaneous and consecutive interpretation in multilingual trials. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit (Ed.), Empirical Research in Translation and Intercultural Studies (pp. 147–155). Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja (2000). In search of translation universals: Non-equivalence or ‘unique’ items in a corpus text. Paper presented at the conference Research Models in Translation Studies, UMIST, 28–30.4.2000, Manchester. Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja (this volume). Unique Items – Over- or Under-Represented in Translated Language? In A. Mauranen & P. Kujamäki (Eds.), Translation Universals – Do They Exist? Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Toury, Gideon (1980). In Search of a Theory of Translation. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics.
Page 2 and 3: Translation Universals
Page 4 and 5: Translation Universals Do they exis
Page 6 and 7: Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
Page 8 and 9: Introduction The search for univers
Page 10 and 11: Introduction 3 the main methodologi
Page 12 and 13: Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
Page 14 and 15: Introduction 7 of several frequent
Page 18: Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
Page 22 and 23: Probabilistic explanations in trans
Page 40 and 41: Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
Page 42 and 43: Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
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60 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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62 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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Corpora, universals and interferenc
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Untypical frequencies in translated
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102 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen (
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104 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 2.2 Lexica
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106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day
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108 Jarmo Harri Jantunen second pha
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110 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Figure 2.
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112 Jarmo Harri Jantunen synonymous
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114 Jarmo Harri Jantunen items comp
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116 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 4. T
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118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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120 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 7. T
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122 Jarmo Harri Jantunen However, t
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124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The bo
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126 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen,
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Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
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146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
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148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
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150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
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152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
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154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
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156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
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158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
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160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
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162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
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164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
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166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
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168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
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172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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