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When is a universal not a universal? 57 First 20 fiction titles randomly selected from the Index Translationum database (from Italian into English) 1. Calvino, Gli amori difficili 2. Calvino, Il barone rampante 3. Calvino, Le cosmicomiche 4. Calvino, Se una notte d’inverno un viaggiatore 5. Calvino, Ti con zero 6. Camon, Un altare per la madre 7. De Céspedes, Il rimorso 8. Eco, Il nome della rosa 9. Garofalo, Operaio di Dio 10. Lajolo, Il vizio assurdo 11. Levi, Cristo si è fermato a Eboli 12. Moravia, 1934 13. Moravia, Il conformista 14. Moravia, La ciociara 15. Moravia, La vita interiore 16. Orseri, Tikva. La porta della speranza 17. Pavese, Il mestiere di vivere 18. Sciascia, Candido 19. Sciascia, Il giorno della civetta; Il contesto 20. Soldati, La sposa americana For those acquainted with Italian and English literature it is clear that the twosetsarenotcomparableatall. 3 Whereas the majority of the English texts could be described as low-brow or popular literature, the Italian texts are almost all classics, canonical exemplars from the production of high-brow authors. This is not, we would suggest, an effect of the text-selection procedure (random sampling ensures that no human bias was inserted at this stage), but a distinguishing feature of translation policies in the two cultures. Let us now consider a monolingual comparable corpus, namely the pioneering Translational English Corpus (TEC) developed at UMIST, in particular its Italian component: 4 Italian component of the Translational English Corpus – Banti,Artemisia – Buzzati, Restless nights – Buzzati, The siren – Capriolo, The woman watching
58 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Zanettin – Savinio, The childhood of Nivasio Dolcemare – Tabucchi, Declares Pereira – Tarchetti, Passion – Tarchetti, Fantastic tales – Troiano,Jerome The source texts of some of these translations are very old: in several cases more than a century elapsed between the creation of the ST and the creation of the TT. Others have a somewhat doubtful status, for instance Troiano’s Jerome, a book about translation, written by the founder and managing director of a translation agency, and translated into six languages to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of that agency. Four out of the ten texts have been translated by Lawrence Venuti, whose involvement with translation studies and ideas on the role of the translator (see e.g. Venuti 1998) may be a further source of bias. It would not be impossible to envisage a comparable corpus of original texts which matched TEC in these respects. However, even in this case we would not have solved all our problems, since we would have to ask what the effects of this design decision might be. If we correct this “translation bias”, which has to do with socio-cultural “preliminary” norms concerning what gets translated and why, are we then not potentially altering the picture to better suit our expectations? By restricting the choice of texts to include only those that are comparable we may be obscuring important situational differences between translated and original texts. Let us consider what happens when the non-translated component is added to the Translational English Corpus, giving birth to the English Comparable Corpus. This component (non-TEC) is taken from the BNC. As such, it is made up of texts originally written in English and published between 1960 and 1993 (probably between 1975 and 1993, see Burnard 1995 for details). TEC- It, however, contains texts originally written in Italian and published between 1866 and 1994, translated into English in the late 1980s and 1990s. The underlying assumption here is that the date of original production of a text in language A does not affect the comparability of its translation into language B with an original in language B. Whilst this assumption may well prove correct, we would suggest it seems intuitively questionable, and in need of empirical verification. A second point we wish to raise relates to the prestige of the works included in the two corpora. As we have seen, the texts that normally get translated from Italian into English (and that are hence more likely to make their way into TEC and similar corpora) tend to be very prestigious, canonical works in
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Translation Universals
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Translation Universals Do they exis
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Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
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Introduction The search for univers
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Introduction 3 the main methodologi
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Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
Page 14 and 15: Introduction 7 of several frequent
Page 16 and 17: Introduction 9 For many, the term u
Page 18: Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
Page 22 and 23: Probabilistic explanations in trans
Page 40 and 41: Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
Page 42 and 43: Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
Page 44 and 45: Beyond the particular 37 characteri
Page 46 and 47: Beyond the particular 39 Contributi
Page 48 and 49: Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
Page 50 and 51: Beyond the particular 43 representa
Page 52 and 53: Beyond the particular 45 or unclear
Page 54 and 55: Beyond the particular 47 What we ne
Page 56: Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
Page 59 and 60: 52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
Page 63: 56 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
Page 72 and 73: Corpora, universals and interferenc
Page 90 and 91: Untypical frequencies in translated
Page 106: Untypical frequencies in translated
Page 109 and 110: 102 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen (
Page 111 and 112: 104 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 2.2 Lexica
Page 113 and 114: 106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day
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108 Jarmo Harri Jantunen second pha
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110 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Figure 2.
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112 Jarmo Harri Jantunen synonymous
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114 Jarmo Harri Jantunen items comp
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116 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 4. T
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118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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120 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 7. T
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122 Jarmo Harri Jantunen However, t
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124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The bo
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126 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen,
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Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
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146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
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148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
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150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
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152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
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154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
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156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
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158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
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160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
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162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
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164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
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166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
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168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
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172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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