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Unique items – over- or under-represented? 181 Table 2. Particles -kin and -hAn in Original vs. Translated Finnish Sub-corpora Fiction Academic Original Translated Original Translated 950,000 words 950,000 words 950,000 words 950,000 words Total Per 1000 Total Per 1000 Total Per 1000 Total Per 1000 words words words words -kin 6595 6.942 4810 5.063 6895 7.258 5579 5.873 -hAn 1856 1.954 1216 1.280 635 0.668 251 0.264 Original Fiction versus 5 instances in Translated Fiction, and 7 instances per one thousand in Original Academic versus 6 instances in Translated Academic. As was noticed in the discussion on the verbs above, the difference between Original and Translated is again more marked in Fiction than in Academic. The clitic particle -hAn is less frequent than -kin, but it is frequent enough to warrant a comparison for the purposes of the Unique Items hypothesis. Since -hAn has a more frequent use in colloquial language, its greater frequency in Fiction was to be expected. It has about 2 appearances per one thousand words in Original Fiction, as against 1 in Translated Fiction. In Original Academic it has about 0.7 appearances per one thousand words as against 0.3 in Translated Academic The research on clitics supports the Unique Items Hypothesis very strongly. The clitics provide an even better testing platform for the hypothesis than lexical items, since they are stylistically relatively unmarked. Moreover, in translation from Finnish into English or German, for example, the clitics present a decision point for the translator. As they lack straightforward linguistic counterparts, they call for a semantic and pragmatic analysis in each context. In translation from English or German into Finnish, on the other hand, the source texts do not display any items that need to be translated by these clitics. The items that could be translated by clitics are also translatable by lexicalized connectors. 4. Discussion The most obvious explanation for the relative scarcity of the verbs of sufficiency in Translated language is the explanation suggested by the Unique Items Hypothesis itself, namely that translators dismiss these verbs because they are not obvious equivalents for any particular items in the source text. The verbs
182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not therefore suggest themselves as first choices for translators, even where they would fit the context very well. When the has enough/is enough pattern appears in an English source text, the translator is led to imitate the pattern and to generate on tarpeeksi instead of one of the above verbs. The clitics, too, can easily be dismissed in translation, since thus translates by niinpä, also by myös, but by mutta,etc. <strong>Translation</strong> scholars have noted this type of source language dependence before, but it has not been studied systematically in corpora. Katharina Reiss pointed out the problem of “missing words” in her book on translation quality assessment (Reiss 1971). She suspected that translators did not perhaps fully exploit the linguistic resources of the target language. As one of the devices for translation criticism to be used without recourse to the source text, Reiss suggests in line with Güttinger (1963: 219), that you carry out a simple test. Take the most frequent words in the target language that do not exist in the source language and check the extent to which these appear in the translation. These “missing words” will reveal whether the translator knows the target language well enough to attain good translation quality. This rule of thumb, according to Reiss (1971: 19), applies not only to the “missing words”, but to “alle Begriffe und Wendungen, die in der anderen Sprache mit unterschiedlichen sprachlichen Mitteln zum Ausdruck gebracht werden”. Miriam Shlesinger (1992) noticed in student translators a failure to lexicalize – to use one word instead of many – in instances where the source language expressed the idea with several words, whereas the target language would have called for a single word equivalent. This tendency was noticed in professional translators, too, and not only in students. Thus the English words deadline and shortlist did not readily find their way even to the English translators’ texts who translated from Hebrew into their mother tongue. Gideon Toury (1995:224–225) suggests that translation as a process causes a tendency to resort to expressions that bear resemblance to the SL rather than expressions that are typical in a similar context in the target language. Toury (1995:225) suggests that “this is highly indicative of the fact that the requirement to communicate in translated utterances may impose behavioural patterns of its own.” The literal equivalents and attempts to translate word by word are very frequent in think aloud protocols of translation even in the performance of translators whose target texts do not show a tendency to translate word for word. The literal expressions may be used as a way to ‘listen to’ what the expression means prior to venturing a translation proper. If the literal equivalent makes perfect sense and does not violate the target language norms, there is no immediate reason to discard it. This is why the
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Translation Universals
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Translation Universals Do they exis
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Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
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Introduction The search for univers
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Introduction 3 the main methodologi
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Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
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Introduction 7 of several frequent
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Introduction 9 For many, the term u
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Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
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Probabilistic explanations in trans
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Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
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Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
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Beyond the particular 37 characteri
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Beyond the particular 39 Contributi
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Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
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Beyond the particular 43 representa
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Beyond the particular 45 or unclear
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Beyond the particular 47 What we ne
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Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
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52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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Corpora, universals and interferenc
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Untypical frequencies in translated
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102 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen (
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104 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 2.2 Lexica
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106 Jarmo Harri Jantunen eighth day
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108 Jarmo Harri Jantunen second pha
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110 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Figure 2.
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112 Jarmo Harri Jantunen synonymous
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114 Jarmo Harri Jantunen items comp
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116 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 4. T
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118 Jarmo Harri Jantunen translatio
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120 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Table 7. T
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122 Jarmo Harri Jantunen However, t
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124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The bo
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126 Jarmo Harri Jantunen Mauranen,
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Translation-specific lexicogrammar?
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Page 151 and 152: 144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
Page 153 and 154: 146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
Page 155 and 156: 148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
Page 157 and 158: 150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
Page 159 and 160: 152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
Page 161 and 162: 154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
Page 163 and 164: 156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
Page 165 and 166: 158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
Page 167 and 168: 160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
Page 169 and 170: 162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
Page 171 and 172: 164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
Page 173 and 174: 166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
Page 175 and 176: 168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
Page 177 and 178: 170 Tiina Puurtinen conditional: jo
Page 179 and 180: 172 Tiina Puurtinen Table 2. Occurr
Page 181 and 182: 174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
Page 183 and 184: 176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
Page 185 and 186: 178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
Page 187: 180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
Page 191 and 192: 184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
Page 194 and 195: What happens to “unique items”
Page 196 and 197: “Unique items” in learners’ t
Page 212 and 213: The fate of “The Families of Mede
Page 214 and 215: Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
Page 222 and 223: Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
Page 224: Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
Page 227 and 228: 220 Subject index G generalization
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Page 231: 47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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