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Untypical patterns in translations 123 of one source language on the MuCTF – could one source language, or source languages belonging to the same language group, distort the distributions of collocational and colligational pattern, no matter how normally distributed the degree modifiers are in the corpus? And could we obtain different results for source language impact, if the source language was other than English in MoCTF? These questions cannot be answered in the current paper, but could be analysed in future research. Notes 1. The concept of translation universal is used here knowing the criticism which it has met (e.g. Tymoczko 1998). It is used as a general concept referring to possible wide-spread tendencies in translations accepting that its manifestations might not concern all languages or language pairs at any given time and place. 2. See especially Tables 7.2 and 7.4. 3. According to Sinclair (1996:94), the investigation of word meaning requires not only the analysis of collocational and colligational patterns, but also the description of semantic preferences and prosodies, which also have a central role in language description. The contextual semantic categories are not, however, included in the present analysis. 4. Furthermore, also the morphological features (such as comparative and superlative forms) seem to differentiate these nearly synonymous words. 5. In 1999, the proportion of English among all source languages was as high as 69 per cent, and it seems that it will grow in the future (Minkkinen 2001). 6. WordSmith Tools is available at: http://www.lexically.net/wordsmith/ 7. x 2 = Σ (O – E) 2 /E, where O = observed frequency and E = expected frequency (Butler 1985:113; Oakes 1998:25). 8. t =(O–E)/ √ O, where O = observed frequency and E = expected frequency (Barnbrook 1996:97). 9. I =log 2 (O / E), where O = observed frequency and E = expected frequency (Barnbrook 1996:98). 10. z=(p 1 –p 2 )/ √ p p (1 – p p )(1/N 1 + 1/N 2 ),wherep=proportionofitemsandN=sample size (Butler 1985:94). 11. Degree modifiers have also been called adverbs of degree (Bäcklund 1973; Klein 1998), intensifiers (Bolinger 1972) or simply adverbs (Quirk et al. 1985). They can modify, at least in English, not only the word classes named here but also verbs, pronouns, and nouns (Quirk et al 1985; Altenberg1991). 12. Paradis (1997) has studied only spoken English. We must, of course, keep in mind that the distribution of degree modifiers may vary across genres and registers.
124 Jarmo Harri Jantunen 13. The boosters and their rank frequency order are partly different from the ones described in Jantunen (2001a: Table 6). This is due to difference in methodology and aims of the examination. 14. Differences are statistically significant: Z = 2,699210 (p < 0.01) for adjectives and Z = 2,465150 (p < 0.05) for adverbs. 15. Differences are statistically significant: Z = 2,69259094 (p < 0.01) for adjectives and Z = 2,506196331 (p < 0.05) for adverbs. References Altenberg, Bengt (1991). Amplifier collocations in Spoken English. In S. Johansson & A.-B. Stenström (Eds.), English Computer Corpora. Selected Papers and Research Guide (pp. 127–147). Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Baker, Mona (1993). Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text and Technology: in Honour of John Sinclair (pp. 233–250). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Baker, Mona (1995). Corpora in Translation Studies: An Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Research. Target, 7(2), 223–243. Barnbrook, Geoff (1996). Language and Computers. A Practical Introduction to the Computer Analysis of Language. Edinburgh University Press. Biber, Douglas, Conrad, Susan, & Reppen, Randi (1998). Corpus linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge University Press. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, & Levenston, Edward (1983). Universals of lexical simplification. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 119–139). London/New York: Longman. Bolinger, Dwight (1972). Degree Words.TheHagueandParis:Mouton. Butler, Christopher (1985). Statistics in Linguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bäcklund, Ulf (1973). The Collocation of Adverbs of Degree in English [Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis]. Uppsala. Carter, Ronald (1987). Vocabulary. Applied Linguistic Perspectives. London: Allen and Unwin. Cruse, D. Alan (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge University Press. Cruse, D. Alan (2000). Meaning in Language. An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford University Press. Eskola, Sari (2002). Syntetisoivat rakenteet käännössuomessa. Suomennetun kaunokirjallisuuden ominaispiirteiden tarkastelua korpusmenetelmillä [Synthesising Structures in Translated Finnish. A Corpus-based Analysis of the Special Features of Finnish Literary Translations], [Publications of the University of Joensuu 30]. Joensuu: University of Joensuu. Firth, J. R. (1968). A synopsis of linguistic theory, 1930–1955. In F. R. Palmer (Ed.), Selected Papers of J. R. Firth 1952–1959 (pp. 168–205). London: Longman. Hoey, Michael (1997). From concordance to text structure: new uses for computer corpora. In P. Melia & B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (Eds.), Proceedings of the Practical Application of Linguistic Corpora Conference (pp. 2–23). Poland: Lodz University Press.
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Translation Universals
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Translation Universals Do they exis
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Table of contents Introduction 1 I.
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Introduction The search for univers
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Introduction 3 the main methodologi
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Introduction 5 tious corpus would w
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Introduction 7 of several frequent
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Introduction 9 For many, the term u
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Introduction 11 Toury, Gideon (1991
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Probabilistic explanations in trans
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Beyond the particular* Andrew Chest
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Beyond the particular 35 6. A trans
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Beyond the particular 37 characteri
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Beyond the particular 39 Contributi
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Beyond the particular 41 A crucial
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Beyond the particular 43 representa
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Beyond the particular 45 or unclear
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Beyond the particular 47 What we ne
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Beyond the particular 49 Schulte, R
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52 Silvia Bernardini and Federico Z
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Corpora, universals and interferenc
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Page 151 and 152: 144 Vilma Pápai It is in the last
Page 153 and 154: 146 Vilma Pápai Table 1. Summary o
Page 155 and 156: 148 Vilma Pápai (Sinclair 1991:13-
Page 157 and 158: 150 Vilma Pápai Table 2. Summary o
Page 159 and 160: 152 Vilma Pápai 4.1.2 Shifts on th
Page 161 and 162: 154 Vilma Pápai part of speech and
Page 163 and 164: 156 Vilma Pápai his former prison
Page 165 and 166: 158 Vilma Pápai Table 4. Frequency
Page 167 and 168: 160 Vilma Pápai In addition, consi
Page 169 and 170: 162 Vilma Pápai PA Porter, A. 1997
Page 171 and 172: 164 Vilma Pápai Ishikawa, Luli (19
Page 173 and 174: 166 Tiina Puurtinen (1996) and Bake
Page 175 and 176: 168 Tiina Puurtinen (1) Hän katsoi
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174 Tiina Puurtinen (5) Lisko voisi
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176 Tiina Puurtinen Mauranen, Anna
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178 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit equivale
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180 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Table 1.
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182 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit do not t
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184 Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit Östman,
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What happens to “unique items”
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“Unique items” in learners’ t
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The fate of “The Families of Mede
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Thefateof“TheFamiliesofMedellín
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Author index A Adab 1 Aijmer 131 Al
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Author index 217 Schäffner 1, 38,
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220 Subject index G generalization
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In the BENJAMINS TRANSLATION LIBRAR
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47. SAWYER, David B.: Fundamental A
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