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they will have to pay. It is also a means of
maintaining or raising standards across sectors of
the industry.
Most commonly, classification systems are
applied in the accommodation sector. Hotels
are graded on the widely-recognised star rating
system, ranging from the basic one-star rating to
the five-star luxury category. However, a variety of
other facilities and services, such as restaurants
or transportation, are also frequently classified.
Airlines, for example, may classify different levels of
service and comfort as economy class, business
class and first class.
Complications inherent in tourism classification
systems are the frequent lack of internationally
agreed parameters for classification, and multiclassification
systems for particular sectors of the
industry. Thus, similar star ratings for hotels in
different countries do not necessarily signify
comparable levels of quality and service. At the
same time, it is not unusual for different
organisations, including national tourism organisations,
motoring associations or clubs, guidebooks
and tour operators, to apply their own
classification systems. This idiosyncratic approach
often results in accommodation or catering
establishments receiving varying and conflicting
ratings. However, although an internationally
standardised classification system may be desirable,
it is generally accepted to be an unattainable
objective, particularly because ratings are based
upon a combination of both tangible features and
intangible subjective assessments �such as `quality'
or `comfort').
For research purposes, tourists themselves are
also subject to classification. In statistical surveys,
tourists are classified by purpose of travel �such as
vacation, business, visiting friends and relatives),
while theoretical categorisations of tourist
roles and behaviour �see typology, tourist)
are sometimes referred to as classifications of
tourists.
Further reading
Holloway, J.C. �1994) The Business of Tourism,
London: Pitman Publishing, 119±121. �A discussion
of the terminology and problems
inherent in the application of classification
systems to the accommodation sector.)
clicheÂ
RICHARD SHARPLEY, UK
The term `clicheÂ' refers to outworn stereotypical
expressions �verbal) and pictorial representations
�visual). In tourism promotion, the former are
typically found in advertisements, brochures, travelogues
and postcards, while the latter additionally
feature in videos. Cliche operates via indexical
transference �for example, a sunset signifying
romance is transferred to a couple), but it is the
overuse of written and iconic metaphor �such as
ever-smiling natives connoting happiness) which
dilutes its meaning �see also promotion, place).
climate
climate 83
GRAHAM M.S. DANN, UK
Weather is the state of the atmospheric system of a
place at a particular point in time, whereas climate
is the result of a compilation of measurements of
atmospheric variables, such as temperature and
precipitation, as observed over at least a thirty-year
period. Thus, climate is what is expected on the
basis of past experience, whereas weather is what
is actually experienced. Both climate and weather
have far-reaching implications for tourism. For
example, the latter influences whether or not
people are likely to participate in a particular
activity and the quality of the experience of those
who do. However, the exact relationships between
climate and tourism vary from region to region
and activity to activity. For example, it is selfevident
that seaside resorts and ski hills exhibit
different relationships with climate.
One of the most obvious and important aspects
of climate tourism relationships is seasonality,
which is strongly but not exclusively a consequence
of climate, and has considerable implications for
the viability of tourism enterprises. Climate is a
major influence upon the length of operating
seasons in middle and high latitude destinations.
This has economic consequences, for capital must