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410 nature tourism
enhancing or maintaining the balance between
tourism use and natural system integrity.
Further reading
Armstrong, S.J. and Botzier, R.G. �1993) Environmental
Ethics:Divergence and Convergence, New York:
McGraw-Hill. �Chapter 3 compares the aesthetic
and ecological values of nature.)
Nelson, G. �1994) `The spread of ecotourism: some
planning implications', Environmental Conservation
21�3): 248±55. �Pages 48±250 describe the ethical
components and main principles of ecotourism
and nature-based tourism.)
nature tourism
TRACY FARRELL, USA
The goal of experiencing flora and fauna in natural
settings is regarded as nature-based tourism, often
used synonymously with ecotourism. Increased
awareness of the environment and greater accessibility
to remote regions have made this a fast
growing form of tourism. Whale-watching, visits to
rain forests and to habitats of large mammals compliment
the more traditional activities of birdwatching
and observing scenery in national
parks.
nature trail
CHARLES S. JOHNSTON, NEW ZEALAND
A path through a natural area featuring indigenous
biological and/or geologic features is described as a
natural trail. Interpretative signs may be present,
or self-guiding brochures provided to enhance the
educational value of the experience. Generally,
nature trails are short loops requiring at most a few
hours to complete, and are popular in public parks
and wildlife preserves.
TOM BROXON, USA
nearest neighbour analysis
Nearest neighbour analysis produces a quantitative
measure of whether a point pattern �where the
points represent discrete entities such as hotels or
other tourism businesses) is clustered, uniform or
random. The technique is used to formulate and
test hypotheses regarding forces affecting the
location of tourism facilities.
need, recreational
STEPHEN SMITH, CANADA
A common classification of human needs is a
threefold typology identifying primary, derived and
integrative needs. Primary human needs are the
most basic and relate to such necessities as food
and defence. Derived needs refer to such things as
education and language, while recreation can be
classified as an integrative need. In affluent
Western societies, primary needs are generally well
satisfied so that many citizens are in the fortunate
position of being able to give some of their time to
the satisfaction of less essential, integrative
needs. Many governments around the world, for
example, have legislated for regular holidays and
weekend breaks from work, a trend that
recognises the values and benefits to be derived
from non-work time. The academic literature,
however, is deeply divided over the question as to
whether people can be said to have a genuine
`need' for recreation. Some argue that periodic
escape from a stressful urban setting is essential
for psychological well-being. Others note that there
is no clear evidence that a lack of recreational
opportunities or the presence of an overstimulating
environment has ever contributed to physical or
mental stress, and conclude that it is impossible to
put precise figures or predictions of such claims.
In the twentieth century, recreational planning
�see planning, recreation) in affluent, industrialised
cities has often involved the identification and
use of normative criteria for judging whether an area
is disadvantaged in terms of available recreational
opportunities, or whether people are having sufficient
non-work time. Standards relating to hectares
of open space per thousand population in metropo-