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668 Index Okechuku, C. 119 Okrant, Mark J. 139±40 Olsen, Michael D. 560, 562 Olympic Airways 262 Olympic Games 211, 234, 428, 250, 553 on-the-job training 289, 593 Ong Lei Tin, Jackie 504 operating budgets 61 operating cost 417 opinion see attitude Oppermann, Martin 264, 277, 396±7, 490, 514, 615 opportunity cost 161, 418 opportunity set 418 Opryland 614 optimal arousal 418 Orbis Travel Agency �Poland) 444 Ordnance Survey �UK) 372 O'Reilly, Ainsley 48 organic agents 296 organic bunching 564 organisation see tourism organisations; trade associations organisation charts 109±10 organisation culture see culture, corporate; culture, organisational organisation design 418 Organisation of American States 419 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 419 state of the environment reports 481 Orient Express 82, 285, 597 orientalism 419±20, 513 orienteering 420 origin±linkage±destination models 144 Osaka �Japan) 336, 487 other 420 , 558 Ottawa Charter �1986) 473 outback 41 outbound tourism 323, 420 outdoor recreation 185, 420±1, 445, 492, 514 travel cost valuation 199 Outing 341 outsourcing 421 overseas office 421±2 Owen, Robert 354 Ozment, John 80, 426±7, 482±3, 487, 595±6 Paajanen, Marja 51±3, 136±7, 218, 473 Pacific Ocean 383, 389 Pacific Asia Travel Association 273, 322, 411, 423, 495, 586 Pacific Rim 423, 503 Pacific Tourism Review 423 package tour 255, 423±4, 582±3, 584, 601 and escape 201 choice set 79 Japan 336 Page, Stephen 329 paid vacation 424±5 legislation 281 Palio �Italian horse race) 91, 130 pampas 29 Pan-American Highway 89, 435 Papa John's International 113 Papua New Guinea 31 parade see event paradigm 425±6 paradise 46, 534 and escape 202 fantasy 222 paratransit 426±7 Paris 260, 470, 487, 616 Paris Convention �on international aviation) �1919) 53, 316 park 427±8, 622 see also national park; theme park Parrinello, G.L. 118, 394, 632 participation recreation 428 see also public participation partnership 428±9 event management 210 passports 219, 220 pastoral care 429 PATA see Pacific Asia Travel Association Patagonia 77 patents 313 path analysis 75 patrimony 429 Pattaya �Thailand) 577 Pau �France) 238 Pawanteh, Latiffah 386 payback models 331 Payne, Robert J. 427±8, 492, 506±7 payroll cost analysis 430 peace 326, 430, 624
Pearce, D. 10 Pearce, D.G. 586±8 Pearce, Philip L. 7±8, 19, 26, 34±5, 38±9, 50, 95, 217, 269, 393, 394, 408, 459±60, 471±3, 525, 578±9, 626 PeÃcheux, M. 1 Pechlaner, H. 22 Pedro, Aurora 164±5, 212 Peirce, Charles Sanders 526 Peltonen, Arvo 231 Pender, Lesley 16, 77 People on the Move 430 Pepsi Cola 115 perception see advertising; anticipation; freedom, perceived; image; mapping, perceptual; marketing; risk, perceived; satisfaction perception, environmental 431 perceptual mapping 431±2 performance appraisal 432 see also performance standard performance indicators 229, 432±3 performance standard 433±4 see also performance appraisal Perrot. S. 33 personal documents, in historical research 279 personal selling 434±5 Peru 435, 624 Pfaffenberg, Carl 58 phenomenology 435±6 Philippines 423, 436±7, 531, 624 photography 245, 342, 437 in historical research 279 prohibition 214 Phuket �Thailand) 577 Phyloxenia project 209 physical geography 249 Pieper, J. 226 piety 437 Pigram, John J. 40±2, 51, 144, 191±2, 193±5, 197, 198, 431, 432±3, 454, 480±2, 493±4, 619, 625 PihlstroÈm, Bengt 230±1 pilgrim 19, 24, 27, 227, 255, 438 and domestic tourism 159 and fun 140 and Grand Tour 260 and liminality 359 early guidebooks 268 in India 302 in Israel 332 in Portugal 455 rest houses 284 to Lourdes 10 see also piety pilgrimage 438, 498, 517, 537, 602 youth 633 see also hajj; shrine pilgrimage route 438 pilgrimage site 438±9, 498, 499, 500 Pine, Ray 214±15, 574±5 pitch-and-putt 256 Pitt-Rivers, J. 287 Pizam, Abraham 62±3, 199±20, 325, 367±9 Pizza Hut 508 placelessness 439 Plan Comptable GeÂneÂral 611 planning 439±40, 451 community 94, 96, 439 environmental 196, 440±1 event management 209±10 financial controls 229 long range 364 master plan 384 precautionary principle 458±9 product 463±4 public participation 475 recreation 410, 441±2 regional 494 resource evaluation 505±6 Thailand 577 use of remote sensing 500 WTO involvement 630 zoning 635 see also forecasting play 151, 242, 365, 442±4 Playa Tambor �Costa Rica) 117 playgrounds 502 playing fields 502 pleasure periphery 444, 457 pleasure tourist 444 Plog, S. 109, 358, 471 Pointcast 177 Poland 444±5, 512 polar regions 445 policy 445±8, 450 and place promotion 468±9 environmental 440 European Union 208, 430 France 239 Index 669
Page 4 and 5:
Chief editor Jafar Jafari Universit
Page 6 and 7:
viii List of contributors Frances B
Page 8 and 9:
x List of contributors Peter Grabow
Page 10 and 11:
xii List of contributors Andrew Loc
Page 12 and 13:
xiv List of contributors Robert A.
Page 14 and 15:
xvi List of contributors Betty Weil
Page 16 and 17:
xviii Introduction mission-driven c
Page 18 and 19:
xx Introduction receiving countries
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xxii Introduction why in this early
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Writing a full and fair acknowledge
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xxvi Entry list bar Barbados bed an
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xxviii Entry list ecoresort ecotour
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xxx Entry list industrial tourism i
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xxxii Entry list New Zealand non-di
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xxxiv Entry list service quality se
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Aborigine Having reviewed research
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initial phase in a developing econo
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Capital expenditure results in the
Page 40 and 41:
evolving �autonomous) cultural sy
Page 42 and 43:
their social practices and the cont
Page 44 and 45:
not always a concern since they are
Page 46 and 47:
The image technique with a linkage-
Page 48 and 49:
than monocultures. Furthermore, it
Page 50 and 51:
airline Airlines �air carriers) p
Page 52 and 53:
See also: drinking; licensing Furth
Page 54 and 55:
`alternative' philosophy can be exp
Page 56 and 57:
developing conceptual constructs. T
Page 58 and 59:
since the 1970s have been from this
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anti-tourism Anti-tourism is a gene
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guards and restricting access. Whil
Page 64 and 65:
a much-needed source of local incom
Page 66 and 67:
Association Internationale d'Expert
Page 68 and 69:
attitudes. Contemporary thinking ab
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of the former include special struc
Page 72 and 73:
with the work of Heider, who noted
Page 74 and 75:
The real picture is in stark contra
Page 76 and 77:
tourism originating in the Americas
Page 78 and 79:
Fourth is the critical approach. Su
Page 80 and 81:
interface ensures that such applica
Page 82 and 83:
foreign investment) triggered by fa
Page 84 and 85:
locations provide opportunities tha
Page 86 and 87:
Mishan, E.J. �ed.) �1994) Cost
Page 88 and 89:
eserved for national or regional to
Page 90 and 91:
the figures for 1986 and 1987. Howe
Page 92 and 93:
strategies or modes of presentation
Page 94 and 95:
necessary when actual results vary
Page 96 and 97:
Burnout Inventory Manual, 2nd edn,
Page 98 and 99:
cafeteria A cafeteria is a self-ser
Page 100 and 101:
the United States, although this pe
Page 102 and 103:
down places. Their lower prices ten
Page 104 and 105:
cannot be an anchor until there has
Page 106 and 107:
ship between number of users �den
Page 108 and 109:
ased on theoretical reasoning which
Page 110 and 111:
of their home countries, and it is
Page 112 and 113:
4.52 million departures with a 21 p
Page 114 and 115:
sources such as grants, membership,
Page 116 and 117:
they will have to pay. It is also a
Page 118 and 119:
as a separate classification becaus
Page 120 and 121:
code in their reservation systems t
Page 122 and 123:
contracts. Such statements insure m
Page 124 and 125:
things/events/places/narratives bec
Page 126 and 127:
mix that includes multiple media an
Page 128 and 129:
esidents. This emergent industry is
Page 130 and 131:
tend to specialise in the productio
Page 132 and 133:
of costs or being a cost leader imp
Page 134 and 135:
and a rigorous test to gain admissi
Page 136 and 137:
Veblen, T. �1970 [1899]) The Theo
Page 138 and 139:
not reflect the characteristics of
Page 140 and 141:
were changing in time. After the wa
Page 142 and 143:
Linked to this evolution, host comm
Page 144 and 145:
enefits, costs and spin-offs whethe
Page 146 and 147:
fully chosen, implemented and carri
Page 148 and 149:
usinesses, then the corporate struc
Page 150 and 151:
afting and river cruising opportuni
Page 152 and 153:
cross-cultural education Cross-cult
Page 154 and 155:
studies of the differential impact
Page 156 and 157:
architectural heritage. The governm
Page 158 and 159:
or over primal peoples. First, prim
Page 160 and 161:
may be trying to understand the str
Page 162 and 163:
organisation perpetuates its cultur
Page 164 and 165:
arts and crafts of Native peoples a
Page 166 and 167:
$3.7 billion. The average number of
Page 168 and 169:
combine his experience and intuitio
Page 170 and 171:
measured by the amount of money spe
Page 172 and 173:
season and staggering school holida
Page 174 and 175:
demonstration effects. With the dev
Page 176 and 177:
Asia and Latin America. One could a
Page 178 and 179:
attractions. They include basic inf
Page 180 and 181:
destination management. DMOs have b
Page 182 and 183:
intervene in the economic and socia
Page 184 and 185:
network of classifications that nor
Page 186 and 187:
organisational norms and standards.
Page 188 and 189:
distance decay There are costs invo
Page 190 and 191:
operators and travel agencies that
Page 192 and 193:
`discover' or connect to the essent
Page 194 and 195:
of the population, and the proporti
Page 196 and 197:
local governments. Given the nature
Page 198 and 199:
Samuelson, P.A. and Nordhaus, W.D.
Page 200 and 201:
and on-the-job capabilities of all
Page 202 and 203:
and a number of elective courses th
Page 204 and 205:
potential inefficiency. There are f
Page 206 and 207:
feasibility of the start-up and ope
Page 208 and 209:
include how to communicate the theo
Page 210 and 211:
�Cooper and Westlake 1989). The u
Page 212 and 213:
working skills for tourism and its
Page 214 and 215:
time or inclination to develop expe
Page 216 and 217:
programme emphasises general manage
Page 218 and 219:
most common forms of recreation for
Page 220 and 221:
some fifteen universities and more
Page 222 and 223:
Science, University of Colorado.
Page 224 and 225:
in such enclaves have no need to le
Page 226 and 227:
See also: culture broker; education
Page 228 and 229:
Congestion and overtaxing of infras
Page 230 and 231:
overview of research in the physica
Page 232 and 233:
cesses for meeting regulatory requi
Page 234 and 235:
eroticism This term captures the se
Page 236 and 237:
English, French, German and Portugu
Page 238 and 239:
does lead to standardised attractio
Page 240 and 241:
ethnicity changes in association wi
Page 242 and 243:
Therefore, it is surprising that th
Page 244 and 245:
Reference Boorstin, D. �1961) The
Page 246 and 247:
excursion An excursion is a short p
Page 248 and 249:
See also: cross-cultural management
Page 250 and 251:
esearcher participating in and faci
Page 252 and 253:
facilitation The concept of facilit
Page 254 and 255:
hand, factor analysis provides for
Page 256 and 257:
authors �Garcia-Ramon et al. 1995
Page 258 and 259:
concept, number and type of hotel r
Page 260 and 261:
mine what is meaningful to them. In
Page 262 and 263:
press event, French officials estim
Page 264 and 265:
The tourism industry is well develo
Page 266 and 267:
used grease are also subtracted fro
Page 268 and 269:
attempt to isolate and measure thos
Page 270 and 271:
either on a regional basis �as wi
Page 272 and 273:
diversified in terms of different c
Page 274 and 275:
succeed in the United States, compa
Page 276 and 277:
gambling Gambling is an activity th
Page 278 and 279:
game park reserve Game park reserve
Page 280 and 281:
characteristics laid down by their
Page 282 and 283:
usually considered to be an object-
Page 284 and 285:
employing a framework based on supp
Page 286 and 287:
margins and causing some high-profi
Page 288 and 289:
tourism) cannot be adequately studi
Page 290 and 291:
y business travel and travel by per
Page 292 and 293:
and Political Analysis, Cambridge:
Page 294 and 295:
visitors through modern equivalents
Page 296 and 297:
for low-income domestic tourists, t
Page 298 and 299:
Tourism in Islands and Small States
Page 300 and 301:
tality to guests is based on rules
Page 302 and 303:
feature of Murray was the commitmen
Page 304 and 305:
gender, ethnicity, employment and t
Page 306 and 307:
elated problems which includes the
Page 308 and 309:
hedonism Hedonism is the unbridled
Page 310 and 311:
The Natural and Built Environment,
Page 312 and 313:
The other main strand of tourism hi
Page 314 and 315:
and a second generation of camps wh
Page 316 and 317:
y advancing tourism development in
Page 318 and 319:
y the nobility suddenly found they
Page 320 and 321:
German gast: stranger, foreigner, e
Page 322 and 323:
education courses or training modul
Page 324 and 325:
humour Humour refers to a sense of
Page 326 and 327:
iconography Illustration by visual
Page 328 and 329:
of the ideology of the picturesque
Page 330 and 331:
are often positive and the environm
Page 332 and 333:
improving environmental performance
Page 334 and 335:
marking. Successful implementation
Page 336 and 337:
doubling of passenger transport out
Page 338 and 339:
Spice Islands ± have occupied a sp
Page 340 and 341:
References Leiper, N. �1995) Tour
Page 342 and 343:
property management system used in
Page 344 and 345:
economic sectors, takes the ad hoc
Page 346 and 347:
esearch, advancement of knowledge i
Page 348 and 349:
International Academy for the Study
Page 350 and 351:
treaties are still governed by thes
Page 352 and 353:
power to the community, a concept t
Page 354 and 355:
and recommended practices are adopt
Page 356 and 357:
International Society of Travel and
Page 358 and 359:
erally did not mind using local tou
Page 360 and 361:
Internet The Internet is a public c
Page 362 and 363:
intervening opportunity Destination
Page 364 and 365:
investment can include increases in
Page 366 and 367:
acts'. in A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld
Page 368 and 369:
unique feature. Despite this, touri
Page 370 and 371:
Further reading Ministry of Transpo
Page 372 and 373:
perspectives, including those of th
Page 374 and 375:
igour. The main sectors covered by
Page 376 and 377:
Kaabah The Kaabah is a cube-shaped
Page 378 and 379:
at the bottom of the knowledge acqu
Page 380 and 381:
and elsewhere, obviously have had d
Page 382 and 383:
variety of offerings and niche mark
Page 384 and 385:
financial and human resources. Ther
Page 386 and 387:
schemes in all sectors of tourism,
Page 388 and 389:
and 1970s. He conceived leisure as
Page 390 and 391:
liberalisation see international av
Page 392 and 393:
lifestyle The concept of lifestyle
Page 394 and 395:
nity, location, place or area. The
Page 396 and 397:
een the formalisation of the concep
Page 398 and 399:
ludic The ludic aspects of tourism
Page 400 and 401:
The new Kuala Lumpur International
Page 402 and 403:
culture, geography, fantasy and oth
Page 404 and 405:
and procedures, project design and
Page 406 and 407:
Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl
Page 408 and 409:
segmentation'. It considers consume
Page 410 and 411:
the producer±consumer relationship
Page 412 and 413:
tions, mostly funded by governments
Page 414 and 415:
concerns the location of an attract
Page 416 and 417:
determinants of brand choice, situa
Page 418 and 419:
promotion tends to be dominated by
Page 420 and 421:
independent meeting planners, perfo
Page 422 and 423:
evenues are added, total tourism re
Page 424 and 425:
eligious marker, are fewer in numbe
Page 426 and 427:
motivation According to the sociolo
Page 428 and 429:
ut nonetheless highly germane facto
Page 430 and 431:
several days or weeks. Another purp
Page 432 and 433:
in order to determine the total eco
Page 434 and 435:
fold worldwide, and they have becom
Page 436 and 437:
prehistorical �the river from whi
Page 438 and 439:
guides in Singapore', Journal of Cu
Page 440 and 441:
National parks and other protected
Page 442 and 443:
shop postcards consisting of photog
Page 444 and 445:
litan areas are of this kind, and i
Page 446 and 447:
een trained it is ready for use in
Page 448 and 449:
any formal association that is neit
Page 450 and 451:
occupancy rate A tourism business o
Page 452 and 453:
The proper fit of these elements is
Page 454 and 455:
esources because the viability of t
Page 456 and 457:
Pacific Asia Travel Association The
Page 458 and 459:
two weeks of paid holiday. The 1938
Page 460 and 461:
alised than conventional forms such
Page 462 and 463:
Local tourism authorities, boards a
Page 464 and 465:
perception see advertising; anticip
Page 466 and 467:
programme, towards meeting stated g
Page 468 and 469:
Further reading Assael, H. �1993)
Page 470 and 471:
of an integrated national developme
Page 472 and 473:
significance contains historic and/
Page 474 and 475:
portation and support networks, is
Page 476 and 477:
the attainment of specific goals
Page 478 and 479:
still a larger volume of internatio
Page 480 and 481:
overall structure of the argument o
Page 482 and 483:
sophistication of international tou
Page 484 and 485:
eferendum on a hotel tax, azoning m
Page 486 and 487:
accommodation may be unavailable, o
Page 488 and 489:
thirteenth century, and was well kn
Page 490 and 491:
address to which it has been sent,
Page 492 and 493:
and environmental information at th
Page 494 and 495:
principal components analysis Princ
Page 496 and 497:
overall experience consisting of fi
Page 498 and 499:
productivity in respect of one inpu
Page 500 and 501:
occur in the related independent va
Page 502 and 503:
elieved that place management is a
Page 504 and 505:
mainly for non-leisure purposes, of
Page 506 and 507:
and economists. The strong hypothet
Page 508 and 509:
input into such decisions and it ha
Page 510 and 511:
purpose Purpose of tourism normally
Page 512 and 513:
hand, this situation demands that t
Page 514 and 515:
quality of the environment. In the
Page 516 and 517:
schedule business meetings without
Page 518 and 519:
equated with the `vision quest' its
Page 520 and 521:
adio Radio is an underrated medium
Page 522 and 523:
these terms emphasise a human and a
Page 524 and 525:
ecreation centre Within a resort, a
Page 526 and 527:
ecreational geography see geography
Page 528 and 529:
within a state, province or territo
Page 530 and 531:
elics Relics are objects venerated
Page 532 and 533:
esponsibility' of the participants,
Page 534 and 535:
a limited period of time. Rented fa
Page 536 and 537:
esort A definition of resorts shoul
Page 538 and 539:
1930s, but not until the 1970s did
Page 540 and 541:
society �see postmodernism) that
Page 542 and 543:
hetoric In the late twentieth centu
Page 544 and 545:
of the transition rite, the stage w
Page 546 and 547:
A role can be defined by the rules
Page 548 and 549:
Abandoned buildings in declining vi
Page 550 and 551:
sacred journey In common usage `sac
Page 552 and 553:
each point; �4) establish procedu
Page 554 and 555:
scenic drive A scenic drive is a ro
Page 556 and 557:
feature of the elite of many countr
Page 558 and 559:
Tourism, Crime and International Se
Page 560 and 561:
the human subject. The global syste
Page 562 and 563:
tourism represents over 10 per cent
Page 564 and 565:
etween tourism and prostitution are
Page 566 and 567:
shrine A shrine is an object or pla
Page 568 and 569:
Hawkes, T. �1977) Structuralism a
Page 570 and 571:
sites, biblical Biblical sites are
Page 572 and 573:
elationships to family members �i
Page 574 and 575:
social recreation Leisure activitie
Page 576 and 577:
provider behaviours that establish
Page 578 and 579:
destination, their quest is frustra
Page 580 and 581:
Watson, G.L. and Kopachevsky, J.P.
Page 582 and 583:
a religious meaning, and are thus u
Page 584 and 585:
market share and facing severe prob
Page 586 and 587:
sector, including creation of media
Page 588 and 589:
purpose. Eventually, the picturesqu
Page 590 and 591:
quantitatively. The mean, median an
Page 592 and 593:
another climate. Nevertheless, they
Page 594 and 595:
oader macroenvironment �demograph
Page 596 and 597:
tourism studies owes most to the wr
Page 598 and 599:
many tourism businesses may be bett
Page 600 and 601:
Further reading Chadwick, R.A. �1
Page 602 and 603:
have succeeded in improving the int
Page 604 and 605:
ings. An element is a component whi
Page 606 and 607:
property, while indirect taxes are
Page 608 and 609:
While it provides the means to crea
Page 610 and 611:
to France, but its economic conditi
Page 612 and 613:
and carnivals. The contribution of
Page 614 and 615:
ecord of a person's use of time. Th
Page 616 and 617:
operator or other supplier, usually
Page 618 and 619:
in marketing products and to guaran
Page 620 and 621:
fragmentation and the spatial separ
Page 622 and 623:
tourism system The concept of a tou
Page 624 and 625:
central elements are sights, sites,
Page 626 and 627:
scientific and the unashamedly roma
Page 628 and 629:
involves a series of transactions.
Page 630 and 631:
type of road. With off-road vehicle
Page 632 and 633:
carriers in particular markets. Mos
Page 634 and 635:
others by those who claim superior
Page 636 and 637:
the production of guidebooks for me
Page 638 and 639:
Further reading Edgell, D.L. �199
Page 640 and 641:
y establishing successful hotel/res
Page 642 and 643:
1988). Graburn �1983) differentia
Page 644 and 645:
tion) might be international in sco
Page 646 and 647:
ecognition of the severe impact of
Page 648 and 649:
ing immigrants to the United States
Page 650 and 651: The combination of sustainable deve
Page 652 and 653: vacationscape The term `vacationsca
Page 654 and 655: present somewhere remotely, rather
Page 656 and 657: References Andregnette, P. �1995)
Page 658 and 659: In war-torn areas, mere prospects f
Page 660 and 661: 1980s. At an earlier time, the Fren
Page 662 and 663: World Tourism Organization The Worl
Page 664 and 665: ÐÐ �1996) Educating the Educato
Page 666 and 667: yield management The concept of max
Page 668 and 669: zoning Zoning, as it is popularly c
Page 670 and 671: 638 Index achievement 7±8 acquisit
Page 672 and 673: 640 Index asset management 32 cash
Page 674 and 675: 642 Index British Hospitality Assoc
Page 676 and 677: 644 Index environmental 86±7 see a
Page 678 and 679: 646 Index craft see handicrafts Cra
Page 680 and 681: 648 Index research 217 design of or
Page 682 and 683: 650 Index role of tourism 250, 452
Page 684 and 685: 652 Index environmental valuation 2
Page 686 and 687: 654 Index and currency smuggling 53
Page 688 and 689: 656 Index Havana Convention �on i
Page 690 and 691: 658 Index marketing 376 metaphor 38
Page 692 and 693: 660 Index inventory 5, 329 and entr
Page 694 and 695: 662 Index paid holidays 281, 425 Ru
Page 696 and 697: 664 Index market research see marke
Page 698 and 699: 666 Index Montreux �Switzerland)
Page 702 and 703: 670 Index Germany 253 Greece 262 Hu
Page 704 and 705: 672 Index ratio analysis 112, 487±
Page 706 and 707: 674 Index restaurant 507±8 classif
Page 708 and 709: 676 Index 157, 253±4, 277, 329±30
Page 710 and 711: 678 Index and conservation 103 and
Page 712 and 713: 680 Index Asia Pacific Tourism Asso
Page 714 and 715: 682 Index vision quest 484±5 Visio
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