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104 consortium
reactionary as research projects are initiated when
impacts are identified or speculated. Often the
research focus is largely limited to the effects of
tourism on vegetation and to a lesser extent
wildlife, with impacts on air and water quality,
soils and ecosystems relatively neglected.
According to researchers, several methodological
problems concerning research on tourism and
the natural environment �and thus nature conservation)
can be identified, including the difficulty
of distinguishing between changes induced by
tourism and those induced by other activities; the
lack of information concerning conditions prior to
the advent of tourism and, hence, the lack of a
baseline against which change can be measured;
the paucity of information on the numbers, types
and tolerance levels of different species of flora and
fauns; and the concentration of researches upon
particular primary resources, such as beaches and
mountains, which are ecologically sensitive. Thus,
successful integration of tourism and nature
conservation objectives is of increasing importance
because it enhances the choices of people and helps
maintain or even enhances the quality of the
environment.
See also: cultural conservation
Further reading
Budowski, G. �1976) `Tourism and conservation:
conflict, coexistence, or symbiosis?', Environmental
Conservation 3�1): 27±31. �Recognises a spectrum
of possible relationships between tourism and
nature conservation.)
Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. �1982) Tourism:
Economic, Physical and Social Impacts, Harlow:
Longman. �Presents a broad introduction to
the diversity of tourism's impacts, presenting a
mix of theoretical and practical issues.)
O'Riordan, T. �1971) Perspective on Resource Management,
London: Pion. �Provides an analysis of
resource management concepts, allocation problems
and decision-making processes.)
Pearce, D.G. �1989) Tourist Development, 2nd edn,
Harlow: Longman Scientific and Technical.
�Examines development patterns and processes,
contribution to growth, and future issues.)
Pigram, J.J. �1983) Outdoor Recreation and Resource
Management, London: Croom Helm. �Recognises
outdoor recreation and tourism as important
forms of resource use.)
consortium
JOHN M. JENKINS, AUSTRALIA
A consortium is an organisation of individual
trading units which combine for a common
commercial purpose such as joint marketing
services and purchasing. Such organisations are not
limited to the tourism industry; there are consortia
of grocery retailers, accountants, solicitors and
builders, as well as hotels and travel agents �see
travel agency). Hotel consortia ± also termed
referral systems in the United States ± are a wellestablished
feature of international operations.
There are about thirty such organisations in the
United Kingdom, of which over half can be viewed
as international, such as Consort hotels and Best
Western hotels. The United States has twenty-five
large consortia and voluntary groups �many of
which are international) as well as many smaller
groupings. The benefits of consortium membership
are the retention of entrepreneurial freedom and
�unlike a franchising agreement) the option of
renewing annual membership.
Individual consortium members come together
to combat the marketing power of corporate
groups. As organisations, consortia are able to
operate in ways which would be impossible for the
individual member. Each unit can be part of a
publicity identity as well as providing a forum for
sharing expertise. Cost reduction through purchasing
advantages or training programmes for staff
can be foci of the organisation. Marketing services
can include access to computer reservation
systems �CRS), establishment of overseas sales
offices, conference placement services and loyalty
programmes. Group promotions can target particular
segments, while referral of customers between
members is encouraged and promoted.
The number of consortium members continues
to expand, although indications are that corporate
groups who were formally members are withdrawing
from such systems. As the members are
collections of individual operators, one brand will