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304 indirect tourism
shared visions, values, and human and intellectual
property rights. Today, indigenous peoples are often
under cultural assault as minority groups within a
dominant state society. Part of this modernisation
assault occurs as indigenous peoples' lands and
cultural practices are consumed by ethnic and
nature-based tourism. These natives are significant
for tourism on both cultural and environmental
grounds. It is estimated that there are 5,000 distinct
indigenous groups, comprising approximately 250
million people and representing 4 per cent of the
world's population. Maintaining cultural diversity
is their distinct achievement. They are caretakers of
a significant part of the ecosystems.
Indigenous tourism is a term used in the
literature to refer to those activities which directly
involve indigenous peoples. In this type of tourism,
the native groups are in control of enterprises
which have indigenous culture as a main attraction.
Many have organised to become managers
and beneficiaries of eco-based tourism aimed at
natural resources conservation. Analysis of their
participation in this industry shows that tourism
can challenge, and in many instances has
challenged, indigenous culture and property
rights.
See also: anthropology; ethnic group; ethnic
tourism
Further reading
Burger, J. �1990) The Gaia Atlas of First Peoples:A
Future for the Indigenous World, New York: Doubleday.
Butler, R. and Hinch, T. �eds) �1996) Tourism and
Indigenous Peoples, London: ITP.
Greaves, T. �1996) `Indigenous peoples', in D.
Levinson and M. Ember �eds), Encyclopedia of
Cultural Anthropology, New York: Holt, vol. 2, 635±
7.
Swain, M.B. �1989) `Gender roles in indigenous
tourism: Kuna Mola, Kuna Yala, and cultural
survival', in V. Smith �ed.), Hosts and Guests:The
Anthropology of Tourism, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 83±104.
CHARLES R. DE BURLO, USA
indirect tourism
In some circles, indirect tourism is understood as
the use of tourism facilities by government agencies
and non-governmental organisations, traders, businessmen,
developers and missionaries, among
others, whose destination visits are for purposes
other than undertaking recreation activities. This
indirect form is considered to differ from direct
forms where the primary motivation is pleasure
tourism �see pleasure tourist).
individual mass
MARTIN FRIEL, UK
The individual mass is a tourist who shares the
perceived demographic and psychographic characteristics
of mass tourism. These may be
summarised as preference for familiar atmosphere,
accommodation, commonplace activities and
sun and fun destinations; relatively low activity
levels with an emphasis on relaxation; and
complete tour packaging prior to departure,
although not necessarily as part of a group �see
package tour).
individualism
MICHAEL HALL, NEW ZEALAND
Greater consumer interest in individualism,
coupled with the twin demands of freedom and
independence, has strongly contributed to the
fragmentation of the mass market. The trend
towards customisation has resulted in a more
diverse tourism market, as people turn away
from the package tour to participate in those
tourism forms more suited to their personal
interests.
Indonesia
FRANK M. GO, THE NETHERLANDS
Since it was discovered by European explorers in
the sixteenth century, the islands of Indonesia ±
Bali, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi and the