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436 Philippines, the
legitimations by which individuals �as members of
social groups) justify the world. In Berger and
Luckman's terms, it is important to examine the
processes by which individuals �in these preferred
social groups) engage in universe maintenance to
construct preferred lifeworlds around themselves.
Phenomenological approaches to understanding
are steadily becoming important in studies of
tourism. While strong empirical logico-positivist/
Cartesian approaches to understanding tend to be
mechanistic and dualistic �focusing on componential
and reductionist predictions for third-person
theoretical accounts about things), phenomenological
inquiry tends to be contextual, in-the-world
inquiry �focusing on holistic and thickly described
accounts of first-person experiences) �Thompson et
al. 1989: 137). In this regard, the constructivist-cuminterpretivist
accounts of Goodman's irrealism,
Gergen's social constructionism and Guba and
Lincoln's constructivist paradigmatic approach
�Schwandt 1994: 125±30) may thus loosely be
labelled phenomenological styles, since each seeks
to analyse the intricacies of lived experience from
the viewpoint of those living it, each grasping for
the actor's definition of things �Verstehen) within
the context of that particular lived reality amongst
the possibility of multiple realities. Clearly, the
prospect of using such heavily emic approaches
across the different populations and affinities of the
developed/developing/undeveloped world of the
tourism encounter is immense.
See also: anthropology; psychology; sociology
References
Berger, P. and Luckman, T.L. �1973) The Social
Construction of Reality, London: Penguin.
Hirschman, E.C. and Holbrook, M.C. �1992)
Postmodern Consumer Research:The Study of Consumption
as Text, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Thompson, C.J., Locander, W.B. and Pollio, H.R.
�1989) `Putting consumer experience back into
consumer research: the philosophy and method
of existential phenomenology', Journal of Consumer
Research 16: 133±46.
KEITH HOLLINSHEAD, UK
Philippines, the
Tourism's potential and pitfalls are evident in its
evolution in the Philippines. Despite over 7,000
islands, beaches, mountains and a culturally diverse
citizenry, arrivals in 1995 were still under 1.5
million. Erratic development, political unrest
and corruption have wasted opportunities to build
on the many tourism assets. Lacklustre development
following the devastation of the Second
World War and frenzied hotel building during the
martial law era of President Marcos �1972±86) left
the nation with an underused tourism infrastructure,
huge debts and a variety of environmental
and social problems. The failure by President
Marcos to follow a phased plan of tourism
development cost the Philippines dearly.
The logistics of an archipelago, the absence of a
tradition of domestic tourism and pilgrimage
and severe poverty have made international
tourism always the focus of planning and
promotion. Insufficient demand and capital
shortages resulted in fewer than 145,000 tourists
in 1972. Within months of declaring martial law,
Marcos created a cabinet-level Department of
Tourism and launched a building spree that added
twelve five-star hotels to Manila in eighteen
months. The tourism infrastructure was built with
guaranteed loans from the government's pension
system. So desperate was the government to fill the
new hotels that mega-conventions were courted,
veterans and Filipinos living abroad were given
subsidised travel to the Philippines and sex
tourism and paedophilia tours proliferated. By
1980, tourism's linkages to the discredited regime
had created a backlash against the industry.
Dissident groups bombed conventions and set fire
to luxury hotels �see terrorism). Tourism plummeted
and many of the hotels went broke, leaving
the government their reluctant owner.
Under President Corazon Aquino �1986±92),
the sites associated with the `People Power'
revolution that ousted Marcos became attractions.
Suggestive marketing was halted and efforts
made to halt sextourism and sell governmentowned
hotels. Few faulted Aquino's priorities, but
political unrest continued to deter tourism
growth. Political stability under President
Fidel Ramos allowed tourism to flourish as part